tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21648685163632693512024-03-19T09:51:32.083+05:30Physics Project Online - Kendriya Vidyalaya PattomAn online blog project initiative by Mathew Abraham, Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom, TrivandrumUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger63125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-33979018639249757402010-10-06T15:33:00.001+05:302010-10-06T15:33:19.506+05:30Score high Grades in CCE<p><strong><a href="http://www.plustwophysics.com">www.plustwophysics.com</a> published </strong><strong>tips and guidelines to help you score better grades in CCE.</strong></p> <p>The most important step in scoring high grades in CCE is to:</p> <blockquote> <p>“L<font color="#000000">et the teachers know you well” </font></p></blockquote> <p>Read more at <a title="http://plustwophysics.com/how-to-score-high-grades-in-cce/" href="http://plustwophysics.com/how-to-score-high-grades-in-cce/">http://plustwophysics.com/how-to-score-high-grades-in-cce/</a></p> <div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-33089300825263753862010-08-15T19:08:00.001+05:302010-08-15T19:08:54.924+05:30Where the mind is without fear …<blockquote> <p><img style="border-right-width: 0px; display: inline; border-top-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; margin-left: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; margin-right: 0px" border="0" alt="" align="left" src="http://india.gov.in/uploads/uploaddetail/2010/Aug/top_left_dot.jpg">Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high; <br>Where knowledge is free; <br>Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by domestic walls; <br>Where words come out from the depth of truth; <br>Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection; <br>Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit; <br>Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action <br>Into that heaven of freedom, my father, let my country awake. <img style="border-right-width: 0px; display: inline; border-top-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; margin-left: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; margin-right: 0px" border="0" alt="" align="right" src="http://india.gov.in/uploads/uploaddetail/2010/Aug/top_right_dot.jpg"></p></blockquote> <div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-2601141639930835982010-08-14T22:21:00.000+05:302010-08-14T22:21:36.583+05:30Science Club Activities Rejuvenated<span class="zemanta-img separator" style="clear: right;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KENDRIYA_VIDYALAYA.gif" rel="nofollow" style="clear: right; display: block; float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA" height="167" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/81/KENDRIYA_VIDYALAYA.gif" style="border: medium none; font-size: 0.8em;" width="122" /></a><span class="zemanta-img-attribution" style="clear: both; float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></span></span>The Science Club activities at Kendriya Vidyalaya Pattom is going to be live.<br />
This is the time you can take membership.<br />
<br />
After the membership phase is over, we will be moving on to various programmes suitable for students to increase their deeper knowledge in the field of their choice, fortnightly newsletter, weekly science quiz, occasional science fairs and many more.<br />
I have started a page for providing the updates of Science Club activities.<br />
Have you joined the Science Club?<br />
If not, Join Now!<br />
Contact the convener immediately.<br />
<div class="zemanta-pixie" style="height: 15px; margin-top: 10px;"><a class="zemanta-pixie-a" href="http://www.zemanta.com/" title="Enhanced by Zemanta"><img alt="Enhanced by Zemanta" class="zemanta-pixie-img" src="http://img.zemanta.com/zemified_e.png?x-id=86a51b18-c72d-4dc7-86ec-4b54b1fbfc10" style="border: medium none; float: right;" /></a></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-71719073300699429092010-08-06T15:47:00.000+05:302010-08-06T15:47:31.388+05:30Trajectory of a Projectile. Presentation<iframe src="https://docs.google.com/present/embed?id=dhhdc5w6_91ghcgvqfv&size=m" frameborder="0" width="555" height="451"></iframe><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-80344874213013497812010-08-05T21:41:00.000+05:302010-08-05T21:41:30.116+05:30BIG BANG<div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriRL4rxlI/AAAAAAAAA8o/oCnJSBqdDF0/s1600/bang-780222.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958679662675538" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriRL4rxlI/AAAAAAAAA8o/oCnJSBqdDF0/s320/bang-780222.jpg" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriRULU-9I/AAAAAAAAA8w/SNXQZfr60wI/s1600/big_bang-781546.gif"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958681888357330" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriRULU-9I/AAAAAAAAA8w/SNXQZfr60wI/s320/big_bang-781546.gif" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriRzGEimI/AAAAAAAAA84/E0lQzDpOp5o/s1600/big_bang-783746.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958690187807330" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriRzGEimI/AAAAAAAAA84/E0lQzDpOp5o/s320/big_bang-783746.jpg" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriSaDoGuI/AAAAAAAAA9A/O8iqB28jqb0/s1600/big-bang-784956.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958700646537954" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriSaDoGuI/AAAAAAAAA9A/O8iqB28jqb0/s320/big-bang-784956.jpg" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriSg3pVrI/AAAAAAAAA9I/swbvNhkqflE/s1600/big-bang1-786302.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958702475335346" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriSg3pVrI/AAAAAAAAA9I/swbvNhkqflE/s320/big-bang1-786302.jpg" /></a></div><br />
<div class="gmail_quote"><div>Big Bang Theory -<br />
<br />
The Premise<br />
<br />
The Big Bang theory is an effort to explain what happened at the very <br />
beginning of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have <br />
shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a <br />
beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that <br />
moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an <br />
effort to explain what happened during and after that moment. <br />
According to the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as <br />
"singularity" around 13.7 billion years ago. What is a "singularity" and <br />
where does it come from? Well, to be honest, we don't know for sure. <br />
Singularities are zones which defy our current understanding of physics. <br />
They are thought to exist at the core of "black holes." Black holes are <br />
areas of intense gravitational pressure. The pressure is thought to be <br />
so intense that finite matter is actually squished into infinite density <br />
(a mathematical concept which truly boggles the mind). These zones <br />
of infinite density are called "singularities." Our universe is thought to <br />
have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense, <br />
something - a singularity. Where did it come from? We don't know. <br />
Why did it appear? We don't know. <br />
<br />
After its initial appearance, it apparently inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded<br />
and cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and <br />
temperature of our current universe. It continues to expand and cool to this <br />
day and we are inside of it: incredible creatures living on a unique planet, <br />
circling a beautiful star clustered together with several hundred billion other <br />
stars in a galaxy soaring through the cosmos, all of which is inside of an <br />
expanding universe that began as an infinitesimal singularity which appeared <br />
out of nowhere for reasons unknown. This is the Big Bang theory. <br />
Big Bang Theory - Common Misconceptions<br />
<br />
There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. <br />
For example, we tend to imagine a giant explosion. Experts however say <br />
that there was no explosion; there was (and continues to be) an expansion. <br />
Rather than imagining a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine <br />
a balloon expanding: an infinitesimally small balloon expanding to the size <br />
of our current universe. <br />
<br />
Another misconception is that we tend to image the singularity as a little <br />
fireball appearing somewhere in space. According to the many experts <br />
however, space didn't exist prior to the Big Bang. Back in the late '60s and <br />
early '70s, when men first walked upon the moon, "three British astrophysicists, <br />
Steven Hawking, George Ellis, and Roger Penrose turned their attention <br />
to the Theory of Relativity and its implications regarding our notions of time. <br />
In 1968 and 1970, they published papers in which they extended Einstein's <br />
Theory of General Relativity to include measurements of time and space.<br />
1, 2 According to their calculations, time and space had a finite beginning <br />
that corresponded to the origin of matter and energy."3 The singularity didn't <br />
appear in space; rather, space began inside of the singularity. Prior to the <br />
singularity, nothing existed, not space, time, matter, or energy - nothing. So <br />
where and in what did the singularity appear if not in space? We don't know. <br />
We don't know where it came from, why it's here, or even where it is. All we <br />
really know is that we are inside of it and at one time it didn't exist and <br />
neither did we. <br />
<br />
Big Bang Theory - Evidence for the Theory<br />
<br />
What are the major evidences which support the Big Bang theory? <br />
<br />
First of all, we are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning. <br />
Second, galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to <br />
their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) <br />
who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the <br />
expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted. <br />
Third, if the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, <br />
we should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radioastronomers <br />
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2.725 degree Kelvin <br />
(-454.765 degree Fahrenheit, -270.425 degree Celsius) Cosmic Microwave <br />
Background radiation (CMB) which pervades the observable universe. This is <br />
thought to be the remnant which scientists were looking for. Penzias and Wilson <br />
shared in the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery. <br />
Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the <br />
observable universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins. <br />
<br />
Big Bang Theory - The Only Plausible Theory?<br />
<br />
Is the standard Big Bang theory the only model consistent with these evidences? <br />
No, it's just the most popular one. Internationally renown Astrophysicist George F. R. <br />
Ellis explains: "People need to be aware that there is a range of models that could <br />
explain the observations….For instance, I can construct you a spherically symmetrical <br />
universe with Earth at its center, and you cannot disprove it based on observations….<br />
You can only exclude it on philosophical grounds. In my view there is absolutely nothing <br />
wrong in that. What I want to bring into the open is the fact that we are using philosophical <br />
criteria in choosing our models. A lot of cosmology tries to hide that."<br />
In 2003, Physicist Robert Gentry proposed an attractive alternative to the standard <br />
theory, an alternative which also accounts for the evidences listed above.5 Dr. Gentry <br />
claims that the standard Big Bang model is founded upon a faulty paradigm <br />
(the Friedmann-lemaitre expanding-spacetime paradigm) which he claims is <br />
inconsistent with the empirical data. He chooses instead to base his model on <br />
Einstein's static-spacetime paradigm which he claims is the "genuine cosmic <br />
Rosetta." Gentry has published several papers outlining what he considers to be <br />
serious flaws in the standard Big Bang model.6 Other high-profile dissenters <br />
include Nobel laureate Dr. Hannes Alfvén, Professor Geoffrey Burbidge, Dr. Halton Arp,<br />
and the renowned British astronomer Sir Fred Hoyle, who is accredited with first <br />
coining the term "the Big Bang" during a BBC radio broadcast in 1950. <br />
<br />
Big Bang Theory - What About God?<br />
<br />
Any discussion of the Big Bang theory would be incomplete without asking the question,<br />
what about God? This is because cosmogony (the study of the origin of the universe) is <br />
an area where science and theology meet. Creation was a supernatural event. That is, it <br />
took place outside of the natural realm. This fact begs the question: is there anything else <br />
which exists outside of the natural realm? Specifically, is there a master Architect out there? <br />
We know that this universe had a beginning. Was God the "First Cause"? We won't attempt <br />
to answer that question in this short article. We just ask the question: <br />
Does God Exist?<br />
<br />
------------- the decision is up to u to say whether god exists or not ....................<br />
<br />
Footnotes: <br />
wikipedia<br />
Steven W. Hawking, George F.R. Ellis, "The Cosmic Black-Body"</div></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-88764717880666000632010-08-05T21:40:00.000+05:302010-08-05T21:40:19.189+05:30GRAND UNIFIED THEORY<div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriDclWzcI/AAAAAAAAA8I/jlvex3xX5WQ/s1600/dimensions-725086.gif"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958443626843586" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriDclWzcI/AAAAAAAAA8I/jlvex3xX5WQ/s320/dimensions-725086.gif" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9ts100PafATqTfDhSMCJhFLJ-m_2cE93JyVnmNcrEF0ckxm8sHg-08-Kc7Gs8eHXMeTNRAdkYkKquq8I0H3Tyz_3-JG9mTjjaWPq5yyoIQwI0LwECYVsaWVsgaE2Yg7oA9Cx9MuSLNJvz/s1600/guts-726685.gif"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958452007007714" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9ts100PafATqTfDhSMCJhFLJ-m_2cE93JyVnmNcrEF0ckxm8sHg-08-Kc7Gs8eHXMeTNRAdkYkKquq8I0H3Tyz_3-JG9mTjjaWPq5yyoIQwI0LwECYVsaWVsgaE2Yg7oA9Cx9MuSLNJvz/s320/guts-726685.gif" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriEUL6gNI/AAAAAAAAA8Y/mqDhjc6oDiI/s1600/light05-729140.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958458552516818" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriEUL6gNI/AAAAAAAAA8Y/mqDhjc6oDiI/s320/light05-729140.jpg" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriEhrkYNI/AAAAAAAAA8g/reu3cBg61uE/s1600/Robs_GUT_pic-730732.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501958462174945490" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFriEhrkYNI/AAAAAAAAA8g/reu3cBg61uE/s320/Robs_GUT_pic-730732.jpg" /></a></div><span style="color: red; font-size: medium;"><u><b></b></u></span><br />
<div class="gmail_quote"><div>GUT<br />
<br />
The term Grand Unified Theory or GUT, refers to any of several <br />
similar models in particle physics in which at high energy scales, <br />
the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model which define <br />
the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions, are merged <br />
into one single interaction characterized by a larger gauge <br />
symmetry and one unified coupling constant rather than three <br />
independent ones<br />
History :<br />
Historically, the first true GUT which was based on the simple <br />
Lie group SU(5), was proposed by Howard Georgi and Sheldon Glashow <br />
in 1974.The Georgi–Glashow model was preceded by the Semisimple Lie <br />
algebra Pati–Salam model by Abdus Salam and Jogesh Pati,who pioneered <br />
the idea to unify gauge interactions.<br />
<br />
Unification of forces and the role of supersymmetry :<br />
The renormalization group running of the three-gauge couplings has been <br />
found to nearly, but not quite, meet at the same point if the hypercharge <br />
is normalized so that it is consistent with SU(5) or SO(10) GUTs, which <br />
are precisely the GUT groups which lead to a simple fermion unification. <br />
This is a significant result, as other Lie groups lead to different <br />
normalizations. However, if the supersymmetric extension MSSM is used <br />
instead of the Standard Model, the match becomes much more accurate. <br />
It is commonly believed that this matching is unlikely to be a coincidence. <br />
Also, most model builders simply assume supersymmetry (SUSY) because it <br />
solves the hierarchy problem—i.e., it stabilizes the electroweak Higgs mass <br />
against radiative corrections. And the Majorana mass of the right-handed <br />
neutrino SO(10) theories with its mass set to the gauge unification scale <br />
is examined, values for the left-handed neutrino masses (see neutrino oscillation) <br />
are produced via the seesaw mechanism. These values are 10–100 times <br />
smaller than the GUT scale, but still relatively close.<br />
(For a more elementary introduction to how Lie algebras are related to <br />
particle physics, see the article Particle physics and representation theory.)<br />
<br />
Current status :<br />
<br />
As of 2009, there is still no hard evidence that nature is described by a Grand <br />
Unified Theory. Moreover, since the Higgs particle has not yet been observed, <br />
the smaller electroweak unification is still pending.The discovery of <br />
neutrino oscillations indicates that the Standard Model is incomplete and <br />
has led to renewed interest toward certain GUT such as SO(10). One of the few <br />
possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion <br />
masses. There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT.<br />
The gauge coupling strengths of QCD, the weak interaction and hypercharge <br />
seem to meet at a common length scale called the GUT scale and equal <br />
approximately to 1016 GeV, which is slightly suggestive. This interesting <br />
numerical observation is called the gauge coupling unification, and it works <br />
particularly well if one assumes the existence of superpartners of the <br />
Standard Model particles. Still it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, <br />
for instance, that ordinary (non supersymmetric) SO(10) models break with <br />
an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati-Salam group<br />
<br />
The research still continues...........................<br />
<br />
</div></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-11269713779621594992010-08-05T21:35:00.000+05:302010-08-05T21:35:35.166+05:30superconductivity - Jihin<div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFraWE2wwJI/AAAAAAAAA7o/d6wQh425H_c/s1600/superconductivity-periodictable-752504.gif"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501949967581888658" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFraWE2wwJI/AAAAAAAAA7o/d6wQh425H_c/s320/superconductivity-periodictable-752504.gif" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNui0Y-Kv8EtNp5XZuuf__K-z2IjvGVq-RONi4CL51uu1k6BMXAFtzHK2cKh7BFlD25vzbAxqB3g64q5s2oyYtzl-d0uge-rLu9Z7Tkzixz9z2J9CdZykcHaiug_n0vMDMklD4p8VcykQc/s1600/SUPERCON-753739.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501949974019582770" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNui0Y-Kv8EtNp5XZuuf__K-z2IjvGVq-RONi4CL51uu1k6BMXAFtzHK2cKh7BFlD25vzbAxqB3g64q5s2oyYtzl-d0uge-rLu9Z7Tkzixz9z2J9CdZykcHaiug_n0vMDMklD4p8VcykQc/s320/SUPERCON-753739.jpg" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlz0MEaMmMQUUNV-y_FURpGCJ2CoVmCl6EcRvlFJlapG5Rq_ifexfAMgbhpM_8_1WjdBdxk5IkzSxsZWRe9CiwofkxDSJT-xYVjUkqT7QPCO2PC7XMtN_8jlxmsYQCkN9X5uUCNtiOHxuc/s1600/s-taillefer-infographic-755511.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501949981582750066" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlz0MEaMmMQUUNV-y_FURpGCJ2CoVmCl6EcRvlFJlapG5Rq_ifexfAMgbhpM_8_1WjdBdxk5IkzSxsZWRe9CiwofkxDSJT-xYVjUkqT7QPCO2PC7XMtN_8jlxmsYQCkN9X5uUCNtiOHxuc/s320/s-taillefer-infographic-755511.jpg" /></a></div><div class="mobile-photo"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFraXHfgQYI/AAAAAAAAA8A/oETZGYcYvWQ/s1600/ring-graphic-756665.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5501949985469514114" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_ogEMQOGOTWw/TFraXHfgQYI/AAAAAAAAA8A/oETZGYcYvWQ/s320/ring-graphic-756665.jpg" /></a></div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div class="gmail_quote"><br />
<div><span style="font-size: medium;">Superconductivity: So simple, yet so hard to explain!</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: medium;">For half a century the world's most brilliant physics theorists tried <br />
scribbling equations, only to crumple the paper and hurl it at a <br />
wastebasket. Bend a metal wire into a circle, make it as cold as<br />
you possibly can, and set an electric current moving around it. <br />
The current can persist. Put the circle of wire above a magnet, <br />
and it will float there until the end of the world.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: medium;">In the decades after this strange discovery, physicists figured<br />
out the laws of relativity and quantum mechanics. They worked <br />
out equations to calculate all the colors and chemistry of the <br />
natural world, they cracked open the atomic nucleus, they <br />
uncovered the forces that light the stars... and still nobody had <br />
explained that little floating wire.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: medium;">This exhibit tells how three extraordinary minds worked together<br />
to finally solve the puzzle. You will see that getting to a new theory <br />
may take not just one "Moment of Discovery" but a string of dozens<br />
of such moments among many people. For a personal account, <br />
listen to Bob Schrieffer, the youngest of the team, tell what happened <br />
in his own words. To get the full background, you can read or listen <br />
to how a noted physicist saw the story from an outside perspective. <br />
You can also read a detailed account by a historian of physics, and <br />
explore other supplementary materials.</span><br />
</div></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-48214054816226708372010-08-01T11:10:00.001+05:302010-08-01T11:12:32.255+05:30GET READY FOR KVS SCIENCE EXHIBITIONIn order to facilitate active participation in <b>Science Exhibition</b>, the marks for 1 Term project will be based on the quality of your exhibit in the School level Science exhibition.<br />
The advantage is that you will be awarded for Physics, Chemistry, Biology/Computer Science & Maths for the project submitted by you for the science exhibition.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><a href="http://www.ncert.nic.in/html/pdf/announcement/SLSEC.pdf">Download the Guidelines for preparation of Exhibits here</a></b></span> <br />
<br />
For Physics <b>due weightage will be given to the work you have already done</b> for online submission of assignments and will be counted along with marks for assignments.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-14718112600892715972010-07-19T13:24:00.006+05:302010-07-19T13:37:22.109+05:30supermen behind superconductors<div style="text-align: left;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Z26ajsp0kS4/TEQFb5aUtnI/AAAAAAAAADM/9P0ZwR4JtnY/s1600/pic+4.jpg"> <img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 93px; height: 116px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_Z26ajsp0kS4/TEQFb5aUtnI/AAAAAAAAADM/9P0ZwR4JtnY/s320/pic+4.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5495523422124684914" border="0" /></a>
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<br /> <span style="font-size:180%;">JOHN BARDEEN
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table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:.5in; text-indent:-.25in; line-height:200%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:16pt;color:black;" >R. Ochsenfeld</span><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:11pt;color:black;" > </span></i> <i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;color:black;" ></span></i>
<br /><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;color:black;" > </span></i><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;color:black;" >Walther Meissner</span></i>
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class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-29314719191980321852010-07-19T13:16:00.007+05:302010-07-19T13:24:19.961+05:30supermen behind superconductors - 1
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mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:.5in; text-indent:-.25in; line-height:200%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%; font-family: Algerian; color: rgb(112, 48, 160);">Heike Kammerlingh Onnes</span>
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<br /></span><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-16353467388254150622010-07-19T13:07:00.000+05:302010-07-19T13:09:39.835+05:30<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dx2Gk9QJdEWYNVIDdNbs3fajavLrqa2FSQThBAt3YdUIj-GryH1F03cPZ51Jgmh_esPlJDqnuaeN0mnoXK8' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-11845393043113026622010-07-19T12:10:00.003+05:302010-07-19T12:45:44.819+05:30**SUPERCONDUCTIVITY**<meta 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class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);font-size:100%;" ><b style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";" >“<span style="font-style: italic;">The </span></span></b></span><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(153, 51, 153); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;font-family:";font-size:100%;color:maroon;" >experiment left no doubt that, as far as accuracy of measurement went, the resistance disappeared. At the same time, however, something unexpected occurred. The disappearance did not take place gradually but abruptly. From 1/500 the resistance at 4.2K, it could be established that the resistance had become less than a thousand-millionth part of that at normal temperature. Thus the mercury at 4.2K has entered a new state, which, owing to its particular electrical properties, can be called th</span><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;font-size:100%;" ><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";" > </span></span><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(153, 51, 153); font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;font-family:";font-size:100%;color:maroon;" ><span style=""> </span>state of superconductivity. “</span><span style=";font-family:";color:maroon;" >— </span><a href="http://www.todayinsci.com/O/Onnes_Heike/OnnesHeike-Quotations.htm"><span style=";font-family:";" >Heike Kamerlingh Onnes</span></a><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:18pt;color:maroon;" ><span style=""> </span>A GLIMPSE <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: rgb(102, 51, 255);font-family:lucida grande;" >SUPERCONDUCTIVITY </span>is a fascinating and challenging field of physics. Scientists and engineers throughout the world have been striving to develop an understanding of this remarkable phenomenon for many years. For nearly 75 years superconductivity has been a relatively obscure subject. Today however, superconductivity is being applied to many diverse areas such as: medicine, theoretical and experimental science, the military, transportation, power production, electronics, as well as many other areas. With the discovery of high-temperature superconductors, which can operate at liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K), superconductivity is now well within the reach of high school students. Unique and exciting opportunities exist today for our students to explore and experiment with this new and important technological field of physics.</p><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);font-family:Algerian;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="font-size:180%;"> </span></span><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CLibrary%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C02%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CLibrary%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C02%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link rel="colorSchemeMapping" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CLibrary%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C02%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:trackmoves/> 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line-height:200%;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.0in 1.0in 1.0in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:.5in; text-indent:-.25in; line-height:200%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 176, 80);font-family:Algerian;font-size:28pt;" >HISTORICAL BACKGROUND</span><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:11pt;" ></span><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: 0in;">Major advances in low-temperature refrigeration were made during the late 19th century. Superconductivity was first discovered in 1911 by the Dutch physicist,<span style="color: rgb(112, 48, 160);">Heike Kammerlingh Onnes</span>. Onnes dedicated his scientific career to exploring extremely cold refrigeration. On July 10, 1908, he successfully liquified <a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#helium">helium</a> by cooling it to 452 degrees below zero Fahrenheit (4 <a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#Kelvin">Kelvin</a> or 4 K). Onnes produced only a few milliliters of liquid helium that day, but this was to be the new beginnings of his explorations in temperature regions previously unreachable. Liquid<span style="font-family:Algerian;"> </span>helium enabled him to cool other materials closer to <a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#absolute%20zero">absolute zero</a> (0 Kelvin), the coldest temperature imaginable. Absolute zero is the temperature at which the energy of material becomes as small as possible.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0in;"><i style="">In 1911, Onnes began to investigate the electrical properties of metals in extremely cold temperatures. It had been known for many years that the </i><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#resistance"><i style="">resistance</i></a><i style=""> of metals fell when cooled below room temperature, but it was not known what limiting value the resistance would approach, if the temperature were reduced to very close to 0 K. Some scientists, such as William Kelvin, believed that electrons flowing through a </i><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#conductor"><i style="">conductor</i></a><i style=""> would come to a complete halt as the temperature approached absolute zero. Other scientists, including Onnes, felt that a cold wire's resistance would dissipate. This suggested that there would be a steady decrease in electrical resistance, allowing for better conduction of electricity. At some very low temperature point, scientists felt that there would be a leveling off as the resistance reached some ill-defined minimum value allowing the current to flow with little or no resistance.Onnes passed a current through a very pure mercury wire and measured its resistance as he steadily lowered the temperature. Much to his surprise there was no leveling off of resistance, let alone the stopping of electrons as suggested by Kelvin. At 4.2 K the resistance suddenly vanished. Current was flowing through the mercury wire and nothing was stopping it, the resistance was zero.FIG 1 is a graph of resistance versus temperature in mercury wire as measured by Onnes . According to Onnes, "Mercury has passed into a new state, which on account of its extraordinary electrical properties may be called the superconductive state". The experiment left no doubt about the disappearance of the resistance of a mercury wire. Kamerlingh Onnes</i> called this newly <i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >discovered</span> state</i>, <b><span style=";font-family:";" >SUPERCONDUCTIVITY<o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style=""> </span></span></b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Onnes found that the superconductor exhibited what he called persistent currents, electric currents that continued to flow without an electric potential driving them. </span></i><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >Onnes had discovered superconductivity, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1913.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:18pt;color:maroon;" >UNLOCKING THE MYSTERIES OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Whenever a new scientific discovery is made, researchers must strive to explain their theories. By 1933 Walther Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld discovered that superconductors are more than a perfect conductor of electricity, they also have an interesting magnetic property of excluding a magnetic field. A superconductor will not allow a magnetic field to penetrate its interior. It causes currents to flow that generate a magnetic field inside the superconductor that just balances the field that would have otherwise penetrated the material.</span></i><span style=""> <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: 0in;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;">This effect, called the <b>Meissner Effect</b>, causes a phenomenon that is a very popular demonstration of superconductivity. </span></i><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/fig2.gif"><i style="">Figure (2)</i></a><i style=""><span style="color:black;"> is an image of magnetic field lines from a magnet levitating above a superconductor. The </span></i><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html%20#Meissner%20effect"><i style="">Meissner Effect</i></a><i style=""><span style="color:black;"> will occur only if the magnetic field is relatively small. If the magnetic field becomes too great, it penetrates the interior of the metal and the metal loses its superconductivity. In 1957 scientists began to unlock the mysteries of superconductors. Three American physicists at the University of Illinois, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer, developed a model that has since stood as a good mental picture of why superconductors behave as they do. The model is expressed in terms of advanced ideas of the science of </span></i><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#quantum%20mechanics"><i style="">quantum mechanics</i></a><i style=""><span style="color:black;">, but the main idea of the model suggests that electrons in a superconductor condense into a quantum ground state and travel together collectively and coherently</span></i><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >. In 1972, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer received the Nobel Prize in Physics for their theory of superconductivity,which is now known as the BCS theory, after the initials of their last names.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><span style=""> </span>In 1986, Georg Bednorz and Alex Müller, working at IBM in Zurich Switzerland, were experimenting with a particular class of metal oxide ceramics called </span></i><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >perovskites</span><span style="color: rgb(51, 153, 102);">.</span><span style="color:black;"> Bednorz and Müller surveyed hundreds of different oxide compounds. Working with ceramics of lanthanum, barium, copper, and oxygen they found indications of superconductivity at 35 K, a startling 12 K above the old record for a superconductor.Soon researchers from around the world would be working with the new types of superconductors. In February of 1987, a </span></i><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/app_e.html#perovskite"><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >perovskite</span></i></a><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" > </span><span style="color:black;">ceramic material was found to superconduct at 90 K. This discovery was very significant because now it became possible to use liquid nitrogen as a coolant. Because these materials superconduct at significantly higher temperatures they are referred to as </span></i><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >High Temperature Superconductors</span></i></b><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" >.<o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:16pt;color:maroon;" >Fundementals of superconductors<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Superconductors have the ability to conduct electricity without the loss of energy. When current flows in an ordinary conductor, for example copper wire, some energy is lost. In a light bulb or electric heater, the electrical resistance creates light.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Inside a superconductor the behavior of electrons is vastly different.</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">As the superconducting electrons travel through the conductor they pass unobstructed through the complex lattice .As these electrons do not bump with anything( unlike the electrons of metal conductors Cu and which collide with tiny impurities and imperfections in lattice), these create no friction and they can transmit electricity with no appreciable loss in the current and no loss of energy.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >BCS THEORY <span style=""> </span></span><span style="color:black;">by three</span></i><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" > </span><span style="color:black;">American physicists-John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer <span style=""> </span>explains superconductivity at temperatures close to absolute zero.</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">According to the theory, as one negatively charged electron passes by positively charged ions in the lattice of the superconductor, the lattice distorts. This in turn causes phonons to be emitted which forms a trough of positive charges around the electron <span style=""> </span>illustrates a wave of lattice distortion due to attraction to a moving electron. Before the electron passes by and before the lattice springs back to its normal position, a second electron is drawn into the trough. It is through this process that two electrons, which should repel one another, link up.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">The BCS theory successfully shows that electrons can be attracted to one another through interactions with the crystalline lattice. This occurs despite the fact that electrons have the same charge.</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">The electron pairing is favorable because it has the effect of putting the material into a lower energy state. When electrons are linked together in pairs, they move through the superconductor in an orderly fashion.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">As the superconductor gains heat energy the vibrations in the lattice become more violent and break the pairs. As they break, superconductivity diminishes. Superconducting metals and alloys have characteristic transition temperatures from normal conductors to superconductors called </span></i><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >Critical Temperature</span><span style="color:black;"> (T _c)</span></i></b><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;color:maroon;" ><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;color:maroon;" ><span style=""> </span></span>Below the superconducting transition temperature, the resistivity of a material is exactly zero. Superconductors made from different materials have different( <span style="">T _c)</span> values.<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 76.5pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">There is a certain maximum current that these materials can be made to carry, above <o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 58.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><b><i style="">which they stop being superconductors. If too much current is pushed through a superconductor, it will revert to the normal state even though it may be below its transition temperature.<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">There are two types of superconductors, Type I and Type II.</i></b> <b><i style="">Very pure samples of lead, mercury, and tin are examples of Type I superconductors. High temperature ceramic superconductors such as YBa_2CU_3O_7 (YBCO) and Bi_ CaSr _ 2Cu_2O_9are examples of Type II superconductors.<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">The superconducting state is defined by three very important factors: critical temperature (<span style="">T</span>c), critical field (<span style="">H</span>c), and critical current density (<span style="">J</span>c). Each of these parameters is very dependant on the other two properties present. Maintaining the superconducting state requires that both the magnetic field and the current density, as well as the temperature, remain below the critical values, all of which depend on the material<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(112, 48, 160);">Tunneling </span>is a process arising from the wave nature of the electron .It<span style=""> </span>is the passage of electrons through a potential barrier which they would not be able to cross according to classical mechanics, such as a thin insulating barrier between two superconductors.<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">The tunneling of a pair of electrons between superconductors separated by an insulating barrier was first discovered by Brian Josephson in 1962. Josephson discovered that if two superconducting metals were separated by a thin insulating barrier such as an oxide layer 10 to 20 angstroms thick, it is possible for electron pairs to pass through the barrier without resistance. This is known as the dc Josephson Effect.<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(192, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">¯<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(204, 0, 153);">A Josephson junction</span> consists of two superconductors separated by a thin insulating barrier. Pairs of superconducting electrons will tunnel through the barrier.</i></b> <b><i style="">The Josephson junction is a superfast switching devise.</i></b><span style=""> </span><b><i style="">the junction devices' exceptional switching speed make them ideal for use in super fast and much smaller computers.<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: 0in;"><b><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-left: 1in; text-indent: 0in;"><b><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><span style=""> </span></span></i><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:Algerian;font-size:16pt;color:maroon;" >APPLICATION OF SUPERCONDUCTORS<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style=""> </span><span style="">Magnetic<b>-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely well</b>.</span></i><b><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:10pt;" > </span><i style="">A landmark for the commercial use of MAGLEV technology occurred in 1990 when it gained the status of a nationally-funded project in Japan. The Minister of Transport authorized construction of the </i></b><a href="http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/maglev/html/english/maglev_frame_E.html"><b><i style="">Yamanashi Maglev Test Line</i></b></a><b><i style="">.</i></b><b><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:10pt;" > </span><i style="">the wider use of MAGLEV vehicles has been constrained by political and environmental concerns (strong magnetic fields </i></b><a href="http://www.superconductors.org/uses.htm#biohzard"><b><i style="">can create <span style=""> </span>a bio-hazard</i></b></a><b><i style="">).</i></b><i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">superconductors can perform a life-saving function <span style=""> </span>in <span style=""> </span>the field of biomagnetism.</i></b><b><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:10pt;" > </span><i style="">By impinging a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field into the body, hydrogen atoms that exist in the body's water and fat molecules are forced to accept energy from the magnetic field. They then release this energy at a frequency that can be detected and displayed graphically by a computer- <span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);">Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 153, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">superconducting wire <span style=""> </span>are<span style=""> </span>made use in electric generators and their efficiency is above 99% and is half the size of conventional generators.</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Recently, power utilities have also begun to use superconductor-based transformers and "</span><span style="color: rgb(112, 48, 160);">fault limiters</span><span style="color:black;">". The </span><span style="color: rgb(192, 0, 0);">Swiss-Swedish company </span></i></b><a href="http://www.abb.com/"><b><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(192, 0, 0);">ABB</span></i></b></a><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;"> was the first to connect a superconducting transformer to a utility power network in March of 1997. ABB also recently announced the development of a 6.4MVA (mega-volt-ampere) fault current limiter - the most powerful in the world.</span></i></b><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Superconductors can be employed in transmission of power to cities.But </span></i></b><b><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><span style=""> </span></span><i style=""><span style="color:black;">due to the high cost and difficulty<span style=""> </span>of cooling miles of superconducting wire<span style=""> </span>this has only happened with short "test runs".</span></i></b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;color:maroon;" ><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style=";font-family:Algerian;color:maroon;" ><span style=""> </span><b> </b></span><b>In the electronics industry, ultra-high-performance filters are now being built. </b></i><span style="font-family:Algerian;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Superconductors have also found widespread applications in the military. HTSC </span></i></b><a href="http://www.superconductors.org/uses.htm#squid2"><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">SQUIDS </span></i></b></a><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">are being used by the U.S. NAVY to detect mines and submarines. And, significantly </span></i></b><a href="http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/january99/features/superpower/supermotor.html"><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">smaller motors </span></i></b></a><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">are being built for NAVY ships using superconducting wire and "tape". In mid-July, 2001, American Superconductor unveiled a </span></i></b><a href="http://www.amsuper.com/products/motorsGenerators/104213395711.cfm"><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;">5000-horsepower motor</span></i></b></a><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;"> made</span></i></b><b><i style=""><span style="font-family:Algerian;"> </span>with superconducting wire (below). An even larger 36.5MW HTS ship propulsion motor was delivered to the U.S. Navy in late 2006.</i></b><i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">The newest application for HTS(high temperature superconductor) wire is in the degaussing of naval vessels.</i></b><b><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:10pt;" > </span>In addition to reduced power requirements, HTS degaussing cable offers reduced size and weight.</i></b><i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><a href="http://lheawww.gsfc.nasa.gov/users/audley/detectors/detectors.html"><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >Superconducting x-ray detectors</span></i></b></a><b><i style=""> and ultra-fast</i></b><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >, </span></i></b><a href="http://www.superconductors.org/lightdet.htm"><b><i style=""><span style=";font-family:";" >superconducting light detectors</span></i></b></a><b><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 102, 0);"> </span>are being developed due to their inherent ability to detect extremely weak amounts of energy. </i></b><i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0.75in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(0, 102, 0);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:16pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 153, 0);">Ø</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style="">Soon superconductors may even play a role in Internet communications also.</i></b><b><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-family:";font-size:10pt;" > </span>, superconductor technology may be called upon to meet this need. </i></b><i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 58.5pt; text-indent: 0in;"><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Algerian;font-size:16pt;" >Superconductivity<span style=""> </span>milestones<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style=";font-family:";font-size:12pt;" ><span style="font-size:100%;">1911 - Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovers superconductivity in mercury at</span><span style="font-size:100%;"> </span><span style="font-size:100%;">temperature of 4 K. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 45pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";font-size:12pt;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1913-Kamerlingh Onnes is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on the properties of matter at low temperature<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1933 – W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld discover the Meissner Effect.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1941-</span></i> s<i style=""><span style="color:black;">cientists report superconductivity in niobium nitride at 16 K.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style="">ª<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1953-</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">Vanadium-3 silicon found to superconduct at 17.5 K.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style="">ª<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">1</span>962-</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">Westinghouse scientists develop the first commercial niobium- titanium superconducting wire.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1972-</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer win the Nobel Prize in Physics for the first successful theory of how superconductivity works.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1986-</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">IBM researchers Alex Müller and Georg Bednorz make a ceramic compound of lanthanum, barium, copper, and oxygen that superconducts at 35 K.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style="">ª<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1987-</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">Scientific groups at the University of Houston and the University of Alabama at Huntsville substitute yttrium for lanthanum and make a ceramic that superconducts at 92 K, bringing superconductivity into the liquid nitrogen range.<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1988-</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">Allen Hermann of the University of Arkansas makes a superconducting ceramic containing calcium and thallium that superconducts at 120 K. Soon after, IBM and AT&T Bell Labs scientists produce a ceramic that superconducts at 125 K<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(109, 37, 163);font-family:Symbol;font-size:20pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 153);">ª</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color:black;">1993-</span></i><span style=";font-family:";font-size:12pt;" > </span><i style=""><span style="color:black;">A. Schilling, M. Cantoni, J. D. Guo, and H. R. Ott from Zurich, Switzerland, produces a superconductor from mercury, barium and copper, (HgBa<span style=""> </span>_Ca _C u_ O<!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="_8" style="'width:24pt;"><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/Library/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/02/clip_image001.gif" alt="_8" shapes="_x0000_i1025" width="32" border="0" height="32" /><!--[endif]-->) with maximum transition temperature of 133K. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(0, 176, 80);"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(146, 205, 220);font-family:Algerian;font-size:16pt;" >WHAT’S<span style=""> </span>LATEST???<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63pt; text-indent: 0in;"><a name="critical_current_density"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><span style=""> </span>Reports indicate that scientists have discovered the world’s smallest superconductor, which is a sheet of four pairs of molecules less than one nanometer wide.</span></i> <i style=""><span style="color:black;">The Ohio University-led study provides the first evidence that nanoscale molecular superconducting wires can be fabricated, which could be used for nanoscale electronic devices and energy applications.</span></i></a></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63pt; text-indent: 0in;"><a name="critical_current_density"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></a></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 76.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style=""><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style="">
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mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 63pt; text-indent: 0in;"><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%; color: rgb(255, 51, 153);font-family:Algerian;font-size:36pt;" >GLOSSARY<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 76.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:18pt;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><b><span style=";font-family:";" > <span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">critical current density J</span></span></b></span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 49.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style=""> </span>The maximum value of electrical current per unit of cross-sectional area that a <span style=""> </span>superconductor can carry without resistance</span></span><span style=";font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="gauss"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=";font-family:";" > <span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">gauss-</span></span></b></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1in; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style=""> </span>The CGS-electromagnetic unit of magnetic flux density. 1 G = 10^-^4tesla. Symbol: G<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="high_temperature_superconductor"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><span style=";font-family:";" >high temperature superconductor (HTS) </span></b></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.75in; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="high_temperature___superconductor"><span style=";font-family:";" >Refers to materials with much higher transition temperatures than previously known superconductors.</span></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="lattice"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="font-size:180%;">v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=";font-family:";" > <span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">Lattice</span></span></b></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >A three dimensional grid-like pattern of the arrangement of atoms in a solid.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span> <span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style=""> </span></span></b></span><span style="color: rgb(255, 102, 0);font-size:100%;" ><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/pt2.html"><span style=""><b><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="color: rgb(255, 102, 102);">Meissner </span> <span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">effect</span></span></b></span></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" > <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 81pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >The expulsion of magnetic fields from a superconductor.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/pt2.html"><span style=""><b><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" ><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);"> </span> <span style="color: rgb(255, 102, 0);">perovskite</span></span></b></span></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 81pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" >A type of crystal. Referring to the crystal structure shared by the 1-2-3 and other high-temperature superconductors.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 81pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/pt2.html"><span style=""><b><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" > <span style="color: rgb(255, 102, 0);">quantum mechanics</span></span></b></span></a></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" ><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=";font-family:";color:black;" ><span style=""> </span>The modern theory of action. It applies primarily to atomic motion.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:100%;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><b style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"><i style=""><a href="http://www.ornl.gov/info/reports/m/ornlm3063r1/pt4.html">SQUID</a></i></b><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 63pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Acronym for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device.<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="tesla"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b style="color: rgb(255, 102, 102);"><i style="">Tesla</i></b></a><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 49.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><span style=""> </span>A unit used to describe the strength of magnetic fields in the MKS system.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style=";font-family:";font-size:100%;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="phonon"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(49, 132, 155);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="font-size:180%;"><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);">v</span></span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman"; color: rgb(255, 102, 102);"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b style="color: rgb(255, 102, 102);"><i style=""> Phonon</i></b></a><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;">Quantized atomic lattice vibration. It is the mechanism causing electron pairing in the BCS theory.<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="cryogenics"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);font-family:Wingdings;" ><span style=""><span style="color: rgb(153, 51, 0);font-size:180%;" >v</span><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><b><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><span style="color: rgb(153, 0, 0);"> </span> <span style="color: rgb(255, 102, 102);">Cryogenics</span></span></i></b></a><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;">A branch of physics dealing with the properties of matter at extremely low temperatures.</span></i></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;">
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<br /><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="font-size:130%;">physicscentral.com</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="">§<span style="font: 130% "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="font-size:130%;">futurescience.com</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="font-size:130%;">BING.COM</span><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:130%;"><i><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;" >en.wikipedia.org</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 1.5in; line-height: normal;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Wingdings;font-size:14pt;" ><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:130%;"><i><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;" >YOUTUBE</span></i></span><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 67.5pt; text-indent: 0in; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i style=""><span style="color:black;"><o:p> </o:p></span></i></span></p><i style=""><span style="color: rgb(118, 146, 60);font-family:Algerian;font-size:14pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></i> <div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-10192917180580164222010-07-18T11:01:00.004+05:302010-07-18T11:21:58.114+05:30THE BIG BANG<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGofRRJImCmUc97rI6XzTBQbqE4T6ojVgUsMZaulCpDzZTh6fhZssFLC1Rup3u46ziABce_h24Fp6gdN_ylMK05S-_WYCC4etbk2xqBUf40pxrAn6w-FMQgm98pVTVQXS9ZA9FSA6PZwDa/s1600/Hubble+ultra+deep+field.jpg">
<br /></a>
<br /><div style="text-align: center;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5U_bA8bBmdNUfycdVNSdpKJVRInQjt-VKofV961qNsm6ol5inAFsoUiSO8BaBac4hUuM3Mha0Rmu22jse3DDRQxQS1YXr2bAelDDcjnobose019Nw173XXTY3j59TsHeyWttlMvuuhiNT/s1600/big+bang.jpg"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 124px; height: 124px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5U_bA8bBmdNUfycdVNSdpKJVRInQjt-VKofV961qNsm6ol5inAFsoUiSO8BaBac4hUuM3Mha0Rmu22jse3DDRQxQS1YXr2bAelDDcjnobose019Nw173XXTY3j59TsHeyWttlMvuuhiNT/s320/big+bang.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5495116224772214722" border="0" /></a><span style="font-size:100%;"> <span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);"> </span><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);font-size:85%;" >The Big Bang</span></span>
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mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-size:100%;" > </span><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t136" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="136" adj="10800" path="m@7,l@8,m@5,21600l@6,21600e"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="sum #0 0 10800"> <v:f eqn="prod #0 2 1"> <v:f eqn="sum 21600 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @2"> <v:f eqn="sum 21600 0 @3"> <v:f eqn="if @0 @3 0"> <v:f eqn="if @0 21600 @1"> <v:f eqn="if @0 0 @2"> <v:f eqn="if @0 @4 21600"> <v:f eqn="mid @5 @6"> <v:f eqn="mid @8 @5"> <v:f eqn="mid @7 @8"> <v:f eqn="mid @6 @7"> <v:f eqn="sum @6 0 @5"> </v:formulas> <v:path textpathok="t" connecttype="custom" connectlocs="@9,0;@10,10800;@11,21600;@12,10800" connectangles="270,180,90,0"> <v:textpath on="t" fitshape="t"> <v:handles> <v:h position="#0,bottomRight" xrange="6629,14971"> </v:handles> <o:lock ext="edit" text="t" shapetype="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_i1025" type="#_x0000_t136" style="'width:329.25pt;" fillcolor="#b2b2b2" strokecolor="#33c" strokeweight="1pt"> <v:fill opacity=".5"> <v:shadow on="t" color="#99f" offset="3pt"> <v:textpath style="'font-family:" trim="t" fitpath="t" string="Big Bang Theory"> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%;font-size:100%;" ><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);font-size:100%;" >The Amazing Big Bang theory is prevailing theory of the early development of the Universe. It is an effort to explain what happened at the very beginning of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during and after that moment.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;color:red;"><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;color:red;"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" spt="75" preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:formulas> <v:path extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" connecttype="rect"> <o:lock ext="edit" aspectratio="t"> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_10" spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" style="'width:227.25pt;height:159.75pt;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'"> <v:imagedata src="file:///C:\DOCUME~1\user\LOCALS~1\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image002.png" title=""> </v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--></span><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;color:red;"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);font-size:100%;" >Based on the standard theory, our universe sprang into existence as "singularity" around 13.7 billion years ago. Zones of infinite density are called “singularities”. Our universe is thought to have begun as an infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense, something - a singularity. After its initial appearance, it apparently inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded and cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and temperature of our current universe. It continues to expand and cool to this day and we are inside of it: incredible creatures living on a unique planet, circling a beautiful star clustered together with several hundred billion other stars in a galaxy soaring through the cosmos, all of which is inside of an expanding universe that began as an infinitesimal singularity which appeared out of nowhere for reasons unknown. This is the Big Bang theory.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);font-size:100%;" >There are many misconceptions surrounding the Big Bang theory. For example, we tend to imagine a giant explosion. Experts however say that there was no explosion; there was (and continues to be) an expansion. Rather than imagining a balloon popping and releasing its contents, imagine a balloon expanding: an infinitesimally small balloon expanding to the size of our current universe.<o:p></o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="line-height: 115%; color: rgb(34, 34, 34);font-size:100%;" >Another misconception is that we tend to image the singularity as a little fireball appearing somewhere in space. According to the many experts however, space didn't exist prior to the Big Bang. Back in the late '60s and early '70s, when men first walked upon the moon, "three British astrophysicists, Steven Hawking, George Ellis, and Roger Penrose turned their attention to the Theory of Relativity and its implications regarding our notions of time. In 1968 and 1970, they published papers in which they extended Einstein's Theory of General Relativity to include measurements of time and space. According to their calculations, time and space had a finite beginning that corresponded to the origin of matter and energy." The singularity didn't appear <span style="">in</span> space; rather, space began inside of the singularity. Prior to the singularity, <span style="">nothing</span> existed, not space, time, matter, or energy - nothing. So where and in what did the singularity appear if not in space? We don't know. We don't know where it came from, why it's here, or even where it is. All we really know is that we are inside of it and at one time it didn't exist and neither did we.</span><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGofRRJImCmUc97rI6XzTBQbqE4T6ojVgUsMZaulCpDzZTh6fhZssFLC1Rup3u46ziABce_h24Fp6gdN_ylMK05S-_WYCC4etbk2xqBUf40pxrAn6w-FMQgm98pVTVQXS9ZA9FSA6PZwDa/s1600/Hubble+ultra+deep+field.jpg"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 220px; height: 220px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGofRRJImCmUc97rI6XzTBQbqE4T6ojVgUsMZaulCpDzZTh6fhZssFLC1Rup3u46ziABce_h24Fp6gdN_ylMK05S-_WYCC4etbk2xqBUf40pxrAn6w-FMQgm98pVTVQXS9ZA9FSA6PZwDa/s320/Hubble+ultra+deep+field.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5495118145941146018" border="0" /></a></p><div style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">Hubble ultra deep field</span></span>
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margin:1.0in 1.0in 1.0in 1.0in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";"><span style="font-size:100%;">Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the Universe. If the mass density of the Universe were greater than the critical density, then the Universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started A BIG CRUNCH. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>RS Prejithhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15863327156460102755noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-6699873928742281802010-07-17T13:16:00.007+05:302010-07-17T13:48:53.713+05:30THE STRING THEORY<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiphIoftMQV04K_nwArJW2xIfnmAZuLNi4oG9IJdI4YVL2mC3gMlsoWdw3Q12ncT_Yz9oJhEeyVnJD1DZsEa7S72lA1-ZsTjMHXc0kIZllLw7x1mRLNtn2mskH8suq3pSbHlqymVD9ryKU/s1600/cribsheet9.gif"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 330px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiphIoftMQV04K_nwArJW2xIfnmAZuLNi4oG9IJdI4YVL2mC3gMlsoWdw3Q12ncT_Yz9oJhEeyVnJD1DZsEa7S72lA1-ZsTjMHXc0kIZllLw7x1mRLNtn2mskH8suq3pSbHlqymVD9ryKU/s400/cribsheet9.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494782947142642610" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">INTRODUCTION</span><br /><b>String theory</b> is a developing theory in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> which attempts to reconcile <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> and <a style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>.<br /><br /><span class="mContent"><span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">String</span></span></span> <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-theory.htm">Theory</a>, sometimes called the <span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">Theory</span></span></span> of Everything, is thought by some to be the unifying field <span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">theory</span></span></span> <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/who-was-albert-einstein.htm">Einstein</a> sought before his death. <span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">String</span></span></span> <span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">theory</span></span></span> is the first mathematically sound <span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">theory</span></span></span> that reconciles the world of the infinitesimally small, with the world we know at large. It unites Einstein’s <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-theory-of-relativity.htm">Theory of Relativity</a> with quantum <a href="http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-physics.htm">physics</a> and offers a potential explanation for the Big Bang.</span><br /><br /><br />What's string theory?<br /><br />String theory posits that the electrons and quarks within an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> are not 0-dimensional objects, but rather 1-dimensional oscillating lines ("strings"), possessing only the dimension of length, but not height or width. The theory poses that these strings can vibrate, thus giving the observed particles their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor_%28particle_physics%29" title="Flavor (particle physics)" class="mw-redirect">flavor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_%28physics%29" title="Charge (physics)">charge</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_%28physics%29" title="Spin (physics)">spin.</a><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History of String Theory</span> <p style="text-align: justify;">Gabriele Veneziano, a research fellow at CERN (a European particle accelerator lab) in 1968, observed a strange coincidence - many properties of the strong nuclear force are perfectly described by the Euler beta-function, an obscure formula devised for purely mathematical reasons two hundred years earlier by Leonhard Euler. In the flurry of research that followed, Yoichiro Nambu of the University of Chicago, Holger Nielsen of the Niels Bohr Institute, and Leonard Susskind of Stanford University revealed that the nuclear interactions of elementary particles modeled <span style="font-weight: bold;">as one-dimensional strings instead of zero-dimensional particles were described exactly by the Euler beta-function</span>. <span style="font-weight: bold;">This was, in effect, the birth of string theory.</span> However, later experiments in the early '70s revealed that many of the theory's predictions were at odds with experimental data. As point-particle theory met success after success, string theory was left by the wayside by all but a few dedicated physicists.<br /></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mContent"><span class="yellowFade"><span><span style="position: relative;" class="FadeWordContainer">String</span></span></span> theorists explain that strings can be <em>open</em> or <em>closed</em>. Open-ended strings have one endpoint attached to the brane on which they reside, keeping matter contained within that brane. Our bodies are believed to be made from open-ended strings. This explains why we can’t reach into or interact with other dimensions. Close-ended strings, however, are like tiny rings, unattached to their brane, able to “leak” away from it; which brings us to gravity</span><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/ADMINI%7E1/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot-2.jpg" alt="" /><span class="mContent">.<br /></span></p><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0jPfnuxNxJUgylDwUYT5aOu6ksqkw5RHRnF4GOsdpeER8DRXnsc665jTyNItlKORjHikAC18j9tT73IuNECYQDql0MRFiuv8F5OzTumabJOLZhlzow3CLnjiv8wVUF4Q8bM91gKMb0_g/s1600/I1546manifold.jpg"><img style="margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; float: left; cursor: pointer; width: 365px; height: 237px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0jPfnuxNxJUgylDwUYT5aOu6ksqkw5RHRnF4GOsdpeER8DRXnsc665jTyNItlKORjHikAC18j9tT73IuNECYQDql0MRFiuv8F5OzTumabJOLZhlzow3CLnjiv8wVUF4Q8bM91gKMb0_g/s400/I1546manifold.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494786062310800178" border="0" /></a><p style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mContent"><span style="font-weight: bold;">String theory and Einstein’s dream</span><br /></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Unification of the theory of gravitation, as given by Einstein’s general theory of relativity, and the theory of electromagnetism, as formulated by Maxwell, had been Einstein’s dream during the later part of his life. String theory, which is the subject of this article, is an attempt to realize this dream. However in many ways string theory attempts to go beyond Einstein’s dream. String theory attempts to bring all known forces of nature – not just gravity and electromagnetism – under one umbrella. It also tries to do so in a manner that is consistent with the principles of quantum mechanics – the theory that is necessary for describing the laws of nature at very small distance. Thus string theory is an attempt to provide an all-encompassing description of nature that works at large distances where gravity becomes important as well as small distances where quantum mechanics is important.<br /><span class="mContent"></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mContent"><br /></span></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mContent"><br /></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/ADMINI%7E1/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot.jpg" alt="" /><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/ADMINI%7E1/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/moz-screenshot-1.jpg" alt="" /><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>abhijith shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02354459583124948586noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-16671617520396734162010-07-17T10:42:00.007+05:302010-07-17T11:40:07.588+05:30<div><br /><br /><div><br /><br /><br /><div><br /><div><div><a href="http://kvphysics.blogspot.com/2010/07/general-theory-of-relativity_15.html"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY</strong></span></a> <img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494753082196842034" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 320px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtnBnf7K0pmnhp368XMQTaDRSZ6n25m1-3OePsuCxm_DdIjUE4GUnqzFH6mv9BTik1IqKfOYark2P_eOjYOGK5JQX3OarftJnMoITOCw8c7leospd0FlyMUPxuMxkdSM2Iy6_0kwwEV4aV/s400/einstein.jpg" border="0" /><br />INTRODUCTION</div><div>Relativity theory was first studied by Albert Einstein. The general theory of relativity was published in 1915. It is the current description of gravitation in modern physics. It unifies special theory of relativity and Newton’s law of gravitation. It describes gravity as a geometrical property of space and time or space - time. The speed of light in a vacuum is constant and an absolute physical boundary for motion. This does not have much effect on person’s day to day life since we travel much lower speed than light. For objects traveling near light speed, however, the theory of relativity states that objects will move slower and shorten in length from the point of view of an observer on Earth. Einstein also derived the famous equation, E = mc2, which reveals the equivalence of mass and energy. </div><div><strong>THEORY OF RELATIVITY</strong></div><div>Theory of relativity is of two types. Special Theory of Relativity and General Theory of Relativity.</div></div><div><strong>Special Theory of Relativity</strong>. </div><div><div>The first is the Special Theory of Relativity, which essentially deals with the question of whether rest and motion are relative or absolute, and with the consequences of Einstein’s conjecture that they are relative.</div><div><strong>General Theory of Relativity.</strong></div><div><br />The second is the General Theory of Relativity, which primarily applies to particles as they accelerate, particularly due to gravitation, and acts as a radical revision of Newton’s theory, predicting important new results for fast-moving and/or very massive bodies. The General Theory of Relativity correctly reproduces all validated predictions of Newton’s theory, but expands on our understanding of some of the key principles. Newtonian physics had previously hypothesized that gravity operated through empty space, but the theory lacked explanatory power as far as how the distance and mass of a given object could be transmitted through space. General relativity irons out this paradox, for it shows that objects continue to move in a straight line in space-time, but we observe the motion as acceleration because of the curved nature of space-time.The development of general relativity began with the equivalence principle, under which the state of accelerated motion and being at rest in a gravitational field are physically identical. The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion; an object in free fall is falling because that is how objects move when there is no force being exerted on them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as in the case in classical mechanics. This is incompatible with classical mechanics and special relativity because in those theories inertially moving objects can not accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do so. To resolve this difficulty Einstein first propose that space – time is curved. Some of the consequences of general relativity are<br />:i) Time goes slower in higher gravitational fields. This is called gravitational time dilation.<br />ii) Orbits precess in a way unexpected in Newton’s theory of gravity.<br />iii) Rays of light bend in the presence of a gravitational field.<br />iv) Frame – dragging in which, a rotating mass “ drags along” the space time around it.<br />v) The Universe is expanding, and the far parts of it are moving away from us faster than the speed of light.<br /><br />In particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the four momentum (mass energy momentum ) of whatever matter and radation are present. The relation is specified by the Einstein field equations , a system of partial differential equations .<br />Many predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical physics, especially concerning the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall , and the propagation of light . Examples of such differences include gravitational time dialation, the gravitational redshift of light, and the gravitational time delay . General relativity's predictions have been confirmed in all observations and experiments to date. Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity, it is the simplest theory that is consistent with experimental data. However, unanswered questions remain, the most fundamental being how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of quantum physics to produce a complete and self-consistent theory of quantum gravity. </div><div><br /> </div><div><br /></div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494748110002472530" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 300px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 240px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjBmybgBbK7AgZBASIphskDJxMN-wbY0hQcgZPiBiamKTQe_Q8GLIE38nRXvUkiN3uZC2qfZMT64PIcCDUXFT7obF1V1NthVE1niDVGVFQd_4No1dhMsUeidUzU2NXZPam_T-xZUD3704M/s400/Black+Hole.jpg" border="0" /> (<em><span style="font-family:arial;">A simulated black hole </span></em><em><span style="font-family:arial;">of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600 kilometers</span></em><em><span style="font-family:arial;"> with the Milky Way </span></em><em><span style="font-family:arial;">in the background</span></em>.)<br /><br /><br /><div>Einstein's theory has important astrophysical implications. It points towards the existence of black holes —regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing, not even light, can escape—as an end-state for massive stars . There is evidence that such stellar black holes as well as more massive varieties of black hole are responsible for the intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical objects such as active galactic nuclei or . The bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing , where multiple images of the same distant astronomical object are visible in the sky. General relativity also predicts the existence of gravitational waves , which have since been measured indirectly; a direct measurement is the aim of projects such as LIGO. In addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of a consistently expanding universe.</div><br /><div><span style="font-family:times new roman;font-size:180%;"><strong>Dragging space and time</strong></span></div><br /><div></div><br /><div><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494751886753527538" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 325px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjgZbBqfwXGB2CDEyjY-16pnLgQCsPTiLahunOs88ZlbMX6iLRenuiIRv23BRky0nKJJG3uwofCBUi79APNb6_Qd-6SqIWDiXJrOCZ0-PqJZDxw-zyyJmtuUFK7PPsTxSpzqS5mwSD6zjno/s400/relativity_clip_image.jpg" border="0" /></div><br /><div>The results of two studies announced in early November 1997 provide unprecedented support for “frame-dragging,” a concept predicted by physicist Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. Frame-dragging describes how massive objects actually distort space and time around themselves as they rotate. One of the studies examined frame-dragging around black holes, an example of which is shown here in an artist's conception. </div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div><br /><div></div></div></div></div></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Abhirami rajeevhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00236618622530894929noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-33543645705746216442010-07-15T23:59:00.003+05:302010-07-16T20:11:43.912+05:30The Special Theory Of Relativity: An attempt to explain E=MC2<i style="font-family:times new roman;"><u><span style="line-height: 200%;font-size:16pt;" >The Special Theory Of <span style="font-family:arial;">Relativity: An attempt to explain E=MC</span><sup style="font-family: arial;">2 </sup><o:p style="font-family: arial;"></o:p></span></u></i> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right; line-height: 200%;font-family:times new roman;" align="right"><i style=""><span style="line-height: 200%;font-size:16pt;" >-H.S.Varun<o:p></o:p></span></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-family: arial;" align="center"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-family: arial;" align="center"><i style="">“Put your hand on a hot stove for one minute, and it seems like an hour. Sit with a pretty girl for an hour, and it seems like a minute. That’s relativity. “<o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right; font-family: arial;" align="right"><i style="">Albert Einstein.<o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: right; font-family: arial;" align="right"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial"><b style=""><u>INTRODUCTION</u></b>: <i style=""><o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/files/imagecache/news/files/20071112_einstein.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 184px; height: 174px;" src="http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/files/imagecache/news/files/20071112_einstein.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a>Einstein’s theory of relativity has caught the imagination of the average man more than any other physics theory in history. Yet the theory of relativity unlike many other results of physics is not easily understood by the average man. We can understand the relativity theory fully only by the means of mathematical formulas which make it up. I am here trying to explain the relativity without a lot of mathematics. Without mathematics, we can only state some of its basic ideas and quote, but not prove, some of its conclusions. I have tried my level best to make this article error free and any mistake from my side is regretted. This article is just a basic attempt to explain Einstein’s Relativity in simple language and I am in no way an expert on this subject. Now that the nature of the article is clear, let us fasten the seat belts. It is going to be a bumpy ride folks.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;">So, what exactly is relativity theory? Yes I have quoted Einstein in the beginning, but that maybe hardly making sense, “Where do a girl and a stove come in physics?” Well relativity theory deals with fundamental ideas of time, space, mass, motion and gravitation, which we use to describe the most fundamental happenings. It gives new meaning to the age old ideas that these words represent. The relativity theory by Einstein is basically made up of two parts:</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: times new roman;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The Special Theory of Relativity (1905),</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The General Theory of Relativity (1915).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial">I here will be here mainly be explaining the first one, The Special Theory Of Relativity (STR). This theory is called special since it refers to a special kind of motion, Uniform motion in a straight line (constant velocity).</p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial;"><b style=""><u>SPECIAL THEORY of RELATIVITY: <o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial;"><br /><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></o:p></u></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial;"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></o:p></u></b>When <st1:city><st1:place>Newton</st1:place></st1:city>’s Principia was first published in 17<sup>th</sup> century, it was immediately labeled as a path breaking document. But such recognition did not come to Einstein in the beginning when Special Theory of Relativity (STR) was first announced. Most of the scientists preferred to remain skeptical till the stunning conclusions could be supported by experimental proofs. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;">The STR (Special Theory of Relativity) was a major blow to the Newtonian Physics. The STR can be best understood by doing a few experiments in one’s own mind. The important 5 special relativistic effects of The STR are: </p> <p class="MsoNormal" face="arial" style="text-align: justify;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The relativity of simultaneity.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Time dilation.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Length contraction as speeds approach lights speed.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Increase in mass of a moving body.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->Relationship between mass and energy.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;">What The STR says is</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->The speed of light is always a constant,</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->At the speed of light, time comes to<span style=""> </span>standstill,</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->At the speed of light mass is infinite,</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]-->E=MC<sup>2 </sup>where E is energy, M is mass, and C is speed of light a constant.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 54pt; font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial;"><span style=""> </span>We must here get it clear that The STR doesn’t claim that everything in universe is relative. It just clarifies that what we thought as absolute (Time and Space) are not absolute, and things that we presumed as relative (Speed of Light) are absolute. Now these statements may seem simple, but the implications are profound. </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family:arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u>WHAT IS MEANT BY RELATIVITY?:<br /></u></b></p><p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p face="arial" class="MsoNormal">Size, speed and motion are all relative terms. We can see that a vehicle faster or slower only as compared to another vehicle. Thus a car is slower than an airplane but faster than a scooter. Similarly, motion is also a relative term. You maybe sitting still and reading my article, but you are only still when the reference is made to the room or the building, which we take to be as a constant. But the building is on earth, which rotates around in its axis, revolves around the sun, and is moving with the galaxy. So you are actually moving in 3 different directions when you are reading my article. </p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u>RELATIVITY of SIMULTANEITY: <o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal">Relativity of Simultaneity is nothing but Relativity of Time. <st1:city><st1:place>Newton</st1:place></st1:city> had assumed that absolute time existed in universe. The STR shows that this is a false notion. The light has a finite speed; it requires time to take to travel from one point to another (299792458 m/s).</p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal">Einstein gave an example of two bolts of lightning striking near a railway line. Suppose if a person were standing close to the track and midway between the two strikes, he would feel that the two strikes occurred at the same time. But if a person were observing this from a fast moving train, he would see the lightning bolt ahead (towards which the train was moving) as the first one to strike. Now if a train goes in the opposite direction, it would be exactly the opposite of the observer on the first train.<o:p></o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal">Now, they are all correct. In one frame of reference, the strikes appear at the same time, while in another, the bolts strike at different times.</p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p face="arial" class="MsoNormal">We can here unmistakably see here that<i style=""> time is a relative happening</i>. You have to keep in mind that The STR is right as long as the speed of light is a constant.</p><p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><object style="font-family: arial;" width="500" height="405"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/wteiuxyqtoM&hl=en_US&fs=1?rel=0&color1=0x3a3a3a&color2=0x999999&border=1"><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/wteiuxyqtoM&hl=en_US&fs=1?rel=0&color1=0x3a3a3a&color2=0x999999&border=1" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="500" height="405"></embed></object><p face="arial" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u>TIME DILATION:<o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;">After relativity of time, The STR comes up with the amazing concept of Time Dilation. Einstein said that Relativity permits events to take place more slowly for one observer than for another observer. These events also include events of life like ageing. The Famous <i style="">Twin Paradox</i> is the result of high speed motion on time. It is of course just theoretical. A young astronaut goes on a space trip to distant stars. His twin brother stays back. Now the astronaut goes to different stars at the speed of light. He finds on return that his brother is an old man, while he is still a young man! The astronaut’s biological clock has ticked of fewer hours as compared to clocks on the earth.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"> </p><o:p style="font-family: arial;"></o:p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;">There is also the famous <i style="">Clock Paradox</i>. A spaceship travels to Arcturus (a star 33 light years away), at the speed of light. So the to and fro trip should take 66 years. But because the spaceship travelled at the speed of light, all time processes on board slows down. The crew hardly feels that the to and fro trip took 66 years. They may feel that only a day has passed. But on return they find everything 66 years older!</p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal">Such weird possibilities have generated curiosity and controversy more than any other idea in The STR. An experiment at CERN, where a muon particle travelled almost at the speed of light had its life extended almost 30 times. This proves the twin paradox.</p><p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><a style="font-family: arial;" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/211_fall2004.web.dir/George_Walker/Relativity.jpg"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 468px; height: 602px;" src="http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/211_fall2004.web.dir/George_Walker/Relativity.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><br /></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u>LENGTH CONTRACTION AT HIGH SPEEDS:<o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal">The STR also states that if an object moves at the speed of light, it would seem to a fixed observer to shorten in the direction of motion. This simply meant that a 100 cm stick would appear less than 100 cm. Such contraction of length is a relative phenomenon that can be demonstrated by thought experiment.</p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u>INCREASED MASS WITH SPEED: <o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal">Here is yet another feature of The STR, which you may find hard to digest. While time slows down with speeds nearing the speed of light, the mass of an object increases. Finally at the speed of light mass = infinity! This magical concept has been proved in particle accelerators. But the change in mass is only significant at speeds near the speed of light.</p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u>E=MC<sup>2</sup>:<o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;">The STR provides with a mathematical formula which defines the relationship between Energy, Mass and Speed of Light. <i style="">E=MC<sup>2</sup>. </i>This famous relationship shows us that an enormous amount of energy is in a small amount of mass. Today the equation is thought as the inspiration behind the atom bomb. But this is the formula that is the energy source of most of the universe.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><b style=""><u>CONCLUSION:</u></b></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_6O-5-TSwTZQ/TEBlZkIHdII/AAAAAAAAABo/dXO4BMeT3io/s1600/bst0003l1.JPG"><br /></a>The STR is now accepted as matter-of-fact statement. It is as basic to present day science as the existence of atoms and quarks.<o:p></o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><b style=""><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></o:p></u></b></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal">With this, comes the end of our journey. I have tried my level best to get the best possible accurate information, though there maybe mistakes. Like Einstein said:</p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-family: arial;" align="center"><i style="">“Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried anything new.”<o:p></o:p></i></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-family: arial;" align="center"><i style=""><o:p> </o:p></i></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal">Here I have just given a basic sketch of The STR. And you have to realize that The STR like all theories is just a creation of a human mind. New theories may eventually show the limitations of The STR and deal with problems that The STR doesn’t cover. But no doubt The STR is one of the greatest theories of all times and has bought much progress in the world of science (and also a few marks for me :D).</p><p style="font-family: arial;" class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><a style="font-family: arial;" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_6O-5-TSwTZQ/TEBlZkIHdII/AAAAAAAAABo/dXO4BMeT3io/s1600/bst0003l1.JPG"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 237px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_6O-5-TSwTZQ/TEBlZkIHdII/AAAAAAAAABo/dXO4BMeT3io/s320/bst0003l1.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494503035260859522" border="0" /></a><br /><b style=""><u>REFERENCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:</u></b><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.cartoonstock.com/newscartoons/cartoonists/rbo/lowres/rbon58l.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 135px; height: 148px;" src="http://www.cartoonstock.com/newscartoons/cartoonists/rbo/lowres/rbon58l.jpg" alt="" border="0" /></a><br /><br />This artcile woudn't have been possible without the gracious help of a few individuals and organisations.<br /><ul><li>I would like to thank our Physcis Teacher Mr. Mathew Abraham for the oppurtunity to express my thoughts on The STR at this platform.</li><li>Also My parents for all the guidance and support they gave me.<br /></li><li>Albert Einstein for giving us such a wonderfull theory, without which this artcile would have been impossible.<br /></li><li>And God, without whom nothing is possible.Like Einstein said:<br /></li></ul><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center; font-style: italic;font-family:arial;" align="center">“<span style="font-size:130%;"><span class="huge" style="font-family:times new roman;">Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind</span></span>. "<br /></p>I would like to thank these organisations who helped me in wrting this atricle<br /><ol><li><a href="http://www.en.wikipedia.org/"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;">Wikipedia<br /></span></a></li><li><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/www.youtube.com">Youtube</a></span></li><li><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;">World Book Encyclopedia</span></li><li><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><a href="https://www.google.com/">Google</a></span></li></ol>Lastly, you the reader for whom I have written this article.I hope you have enjoyed reading my article.<br /><br /><br /><br /><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;font-size:180%;" ><span style="font-family:courier new;">The END</span></span></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Anonymousnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-22857951830373489032010-07-15T20:17:00.001+05:302010-08-01T11:02:22.126+05:30String Theory<font style="font-style: italic;"></font><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link rel="colorSchemeMapping" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5Cuser%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:trackmoves/> <w:trackformatting/> <w:punctuationkerning/> 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table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><font size="3"><b><font style="" face=""">String theory</font></b></font><font style="" face=""" size="12pt"><font size="3"> is a in </font><font size="3">particle physics which attempts to reconcile quantum mechanics and </font><font size="3"> general relativity. String theory posits that the </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"><font color="blue">electrons</font></a></font><font size="3"> and </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark" title="Quark"><font color="blue">quarks</font></a></font><font size="3"> within an </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom" title="Atom"><font color="blue">atom</font></a></font><font size="3"> are not 0-dimensional objects, but rather 1-dimensional oscillating lines ("strings"), possessing only the dimension of length, but not height or width. The theory poses that these strings can vibrate, thus giving the observed particles their </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor_%28particle_physics%29" title="Flavor (particle physics)"><font color="blue">flavor</font></a></font><font size="3">, </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_%28physics%29" title="Charge (physics)"><font color="blue">charge</font></a></font><font size="3">, </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass" title="Mass"><font color="blue">mass</font></a></font><font size="3"> and </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_%28physics%29" title="Spin (physics)"><font color="blue">spin</font></a></font><font size="3">. The earliest string model, the </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosonic_string_theory" title="Bosonic string theory"><font color="blue">bosonic string</font></a></font><font size="3">, incorporated only </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson" title="Boson"><font color="blue">bosons</font></a></font><font size="3">, although this view evolved to the </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory"><font color="blue">superstring theory</font></a></font><font size="3">, which posits that a connection (a "supersymmetry") exists between </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosons" title="Bosons"><font color="blue">bosons</font></a></font><font size="3"> and </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermions" title="Fermions"><font color="blue">fermions</font></a></font><font size="3">, two fundamentally different types of particles. String theories also require the existence of several extra, unobservable, dimensions to the universe, in addition to the usual three spatial dimensions (height, width, and length) and the fourth dimension of time. </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M_theory" title="M theory"><font color="blue">M theory</font></a></font><font size="3">, for example, requires that </font><font size="3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime"><font color="blue">spacetime</font></a></font><font size="3"> have eleven dimensions.</font><font size="3"><sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_theory#cite_note-arxiv2-1"><font color="blue">[2]</font></a></sup></font><o:p></o:p></font></p> <div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>RS Prejithhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/15863327156460102755noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-52857534264404421172010-07-15T19:52:00.004+05:302010-07-15T20:34:23.976+05:30LATEST ON LHC<span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;">CERN's <strong><span style="color:#006600;">Large Hadron Collider</span></strong> </span><span style="color:#000000;">has finally started colliding two 3.5-TeV circulating beams of protons together to produce 7-TeV collisions and the official start of the LHC research program.</span></span><br /><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi61AgyM0gTmJ6935VPmvub9UpAk8he_ivIEcuwQSuG77JqMexdzQGjyqxmnEq5I8dMcreHLHvql5OIQ1w_SLmDDdmkjD5zxX3i6PpcvlaxDBpiqgcZBBtWel-FnTl5YMq4VeG4-nb8Lns/s1600/LHC_first_collisions[1].jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494146479268619458" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 371px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 222px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi61AgyM0gTmJ6935VPmvub9UpAk8he_ivIEcuwQSuG77JqMexdzQGjyqxmnEq5I8dMcreHLHvql5OIQ1w_SLmDDdmkjD5zxX3i6PpcvlaxDBpiqgcZBBtWel-FnTl5YMq4VeG4-nb8Lns/s320/LHC_first_collisions%5B1%5D.jpg" border="0" /></a></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><em>The collisions above occured at the LHC ,with a couple hundred thousand collisions taken in the first hour.</em></strong></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;">The collisions almost didn't happen when a power supply tripped and had to be reset says <strong><em>Steve Meyers , CERN's director</em></strong> <strong><em>for accelerators and technology</em></strong>. The new safety system that had been installed after technical difficulties in 2008, then the system was shut down . New protons were quickly injected back into the ring after the problem was corrected.Research teams at the four LHC experiments—<span style="color:#006600;"><strong>ATLAS, ALICE ,CMS and LHCb</strong></span>—say that data delivered from their detectors look good. <strong><em>LHC Project leader Lyn Evans</em></strong> cautions however, that it will take some time to run the collider up to maximum efficiency.</span></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#006600;"><strong></strong></span></span></span></div><br /><div><strong><span style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;color:#006600;">A LONG RUN</span></strong></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;">CERN will run the LHC for 18–24 months with the objective of delivering enough data to the experiments to make significant advances across a wide range of physics. As soon as they have calibrated the detectors by "rediscovering" the known standard model particles , the LHC experiments will start the systematic search for the <strong><em>Higgs Boson</em></strong> . The latest data from <strong><em>Fermilab</em></strong> suggest however, that the Higgs will not be discovered in this first datarun but will require higher collision energies.<br />For supersymmetry, <strong><em>ATLAS</em></strong> and <strong>CMS </strong>will each have enough data to double today's sensitivity to certain new discoveries. Experiments today are sensitive to some supersymmetric particles with masses up to 400 GeV. An inverse femtobarn at the LHC pushes the discovery range up to 800 GeV.</span></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"></span></span></div><br /><div><span style="font-family:trebuchet ms;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="color:#006600;">SHUTDOWN AND UPGRADE<br /></span></strong>Following this run, the LHC will shutdown for routine maintenance, and to complete the repairs nessecitated by the incident of 19 September -when an improperly soldered splice connecting two superconducting cables failed- and the consolidation needed to reach the LHC's design energy of 14-TeV.<br />Traditionally, CERN has operated its accelerators on an annual cycle, running for seven to eight months with a four- to five-month shutdown each year but because the cryogenic machine operates at very low temperature, the LHC takes about a month to come up to room temperature and another month to cool down. A four-month shutdown as part of an annual cycle no longer makes sense for such a machine, so CERN has decided to move to a longer cycle with longer periods of operation accompanied by longer shutdown periods when needed.</span></span></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Pooja Padmakumarhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/18404317764359773041noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-77335745723348538432010-07-15T19:23:00.001+05:302010-08-01T11:02:22.137+05:30BIG BANG-THE BEGINNING
<br />The Big Bang theory is a cosmological theory of the early development of our universe. Discoveries in astronomy and physics have shown beyond a reasonable doubt that our universe did in fact have a beginning. Prior to that moment there was nothing; during and after that moment there was something: our universe. The big bang theory is an effort to explain what happened during and after that moment.
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<br />The Big Bang theory states that the universe emerged from a state of extremely high temperature and density in an explosive expansion that occurred around 13.3 to 13.9 billion years ago.
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<br /><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Anil Krishnanunnihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10860559014983761831noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-16297672178194504372010-07-15T16:22:00.014+05:302010-07-15T19:30:12.815+05:30LARGE HADRON COLLIDER" OUR UNDERSTANDING ABOUT UNIVERSE IS ABOUT TO CHANGE''<div style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;color:maroon;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;">Our understanding of the Universe is about to change.......</span></span></b></div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:14.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;"><b>INTRODUCTION</b></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#663333;"><b><o:p></o:p></b></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#663333;"><b> </b></span></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. The LHC lies near <st1:city st="on">Geneva</st1:city>, where it spans the border between <st1:country-region st="on">Switzerland</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region> about 100 m underground. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">The Large Hadron Collider was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). with the intention of testing various predictions of high-energy physics, including the existence of the hypothesized Higgs boson and of the large family of new particles predicted by supersymmetry. Physicists will use the LHC to recreate the conditions just after the Big Bang, by colliding the two beams at very high energy. It is funded by and built in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Two beams of subatomic particles called 'hadrons' – either protons or lead ions – will travel in opposite directions inside the circular accelerator, gaining energy with every lap. Physicists will use the LHC to recreate the conditions just after the Big Bang, by colliding the two beams head-on at very high energy. Teams of physicists from around the world will analyse the particles created in the collisions using special detectors in a number of experiments dedicated to the LHC.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">There are many theories as to what will result from these collisions, but what's for sure is that a brave new world of physics will emerge from the new accelerator, as knowledge in particle physics goes on to describe the workings of the Universe. For decades, the Standard Model of particle physics has served physicists well as a means of understanding the fundamental laws of Nature, but it does not tell the whole story. Only experimental data using the higher energies reached by the LHC can push knowledge forward, challenging those who seek confirmation of established knowledge, and those who dare to dream beyond the paradigm.</span><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjg2T87Y7VLqVrhVLz0ZmQ9LUfgGygd1UpAmLoiSHp7AvlxqdbdYk7wJoLmDg-2QHCdGEBEHOuXmWay1YcoND_jLHiIpipZIBPel0KVTl3f8qjUXR8wo_kAo5zQ7Oh04ITnxD-ocLFEo8EV/s320/clip_image002.jpg" /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Arial;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Arial;"></span></p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Arial;"><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;color:maroon;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;">Tunnelling to the beginning of time</span></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">DESIGN</span></span></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">The LHC is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. The collider is contained in a circular tunnel, with a circumference of 27 kilometres (17 mi), at a depth ranging from 50 to 175 metres (160 to 574 ft) underground.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">The 3.8-metre (12 ft) wide concrete-lined tunnel, constructed between 1983 and 1988, was formerly used to house the Large Electron–Positron Collider. It crosses the border between <st1:country-region st="on">Switzerland</st1:country-region> and <st1:country-region st="on">France</st1:country-region> at four points, with most of it in <st1:country-region st="on"><st1:place st="on">France</st1:place></st1:country-region>. Surface buildings hold ancillary equipment such as compressors, ventilation equipment, control electronics and refrigeration plants.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjmfa_EjsK5v0VSns20SXS6xE0FuGFXvcjkF9MBjlrDhF_IZMSOXlOiUFFK5rZDfPBBBayuyvl6mWqx0j-J46bdMkAq0i-XxAlM27itjZAcLROir7Or6g2Vv1unXnLwey2zqLLMZOiMCk4p/s320/clip_image003.JPG" /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"></span></p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">Superconducting quadrupole electromagnets are used to direct the beams to four intersection points, where interactions between accelerated protons will take place.</span></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">The collider tunnel contains two adjacent parallel beam pipes that intersect at four points, each containing a proton beam, which travel in opposite directions around the ring. Some 1,232 dipole magnets keep the beams on their circular path, while an additional 392 quadrupole magnets are used to keep the beams focused, in order to maximize the chances of interaction between the particles in the four intersection points, where the two beams will cross. In total, over 1,600 superconducting magnets are installed, with most weighing over 27 tonnes. Approximately 96 tonnes of liquid helium is needed to keep the magnets at their operating temperature of 1.9 K (−271.25 °C), making the LHC the largest cryogenic facility in the world at liquid helium temperature.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 7 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets will be increased from 0.54 to 8.3 teslas (T). The protons will each have an energy of 7 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 14 TeV. At this energy the protons have a Lorentz factor of about 7,500 and move at about 0.999999991 c, or about 3 metres per second slower than of the speed of light (c). It will take less than 90 microseconds (μs) for a proton to travel once around the main ring – a speed of about 11,000 revolutions per second. Rather than continuous beams, the protons will be bunched together, into 2,808 bunches, so that interactions between the two beams will take place at discrete intervals never shorter than 25 nanoseconds (ns) apart. However it will be operated with fewer bunches when it is first commissioned, giving it a bunch crossing interval of 75 ns.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Prior to being injected into the main accelerator, the particles are prepared by a series of systems that successively increase their energy. The first system is the linear particle accelerator LINAC 2 generating 50-MeV protons, which feeds the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). There the protons are accelerated to 1.4 GeV and injected into the Proton Synchrotron (PS), where they are accelerated to 26 GeV. Finally the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is used to further increase their energy to 450 GeV before they are at last injected (over a period of 20 minutes) into the main ring. Here the proton bunches are accumulated, accelerated (over a period of 20 minutes) to their peak 7-TeV energy, and finally circulated for 10 to 24 hours while collisions occur at the four intersection points.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">The LHC physics program is mainly based on proton–proton collisions. However, shorter running periods, typically one month per year, with heavy-ion collisions are included in the program. While lighter ions are considered as well, the baseline scheme deals with lead ions[30] (see A Large Ion Collider Experiment). The lead ions will be first accelerated by the linear accelerator LINAC 3, and the Low-Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) will be used as an ion storage and cooler unit. The ions will then be further accelerated by the PS and SPS before being injected into LHC ring, where they will reach an energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon (or 575 TeV per ion), higher than the energies reached by the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The aim of the heavy-ion program is to investigate quark–gluon plasma, which existed in the early universe.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEv90twojmpSgmHgzPgdIkTM5-XokhS0-FhWpDH0R8u7swfnj7BsfKEO-rfcDTV2Sb586xcie8xnGX3zOaKXm2-DenzFaAddTmqTb5LTXYwGHBNANmo_v_TSRIEPhDHiH4yDW0EKsc8jhO/s320/clip_image001.jpg" /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"></span></p><span style="font-family:Arial;"><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">EXPECTED RESULT</span></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">This gigantic scientific instrument is intended to collide opposing particle beams of either protons at an energy of 7 teraelectronvolts<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>per particle, or lead nuclei at an energy of 574 TeV per nucleus. The term hadron refers to particles composed of quarks. It is expected that it will<span style="mso-spacerun:yes"> </span>help us to know about the deepest laws of nature.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">CURRENT RESULT</span></span></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:14.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">On 10 September 2008, the proton beams were successfully circulated in the main ring of the LHC for the first time, but nine days later, operations were halted due to a serious fault between two superconducting bending magnets. Repairing the resulting damage and installing additional safety features took over a year.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">On 20 November 2009, the proton beams were successfully circulated again, with the first proton–proton collisions being recorded three days later at the injection energy of 450 GeV per beam. The LHC became the world's highest-energy particle accelerator on 30 November 2009, achieving a world record 1.18 TeV per beam and surpassing the record previously held by the Tevatron at Fermilab in <st1:place st="on"><st1:city st="on">Batavia</st1:city>, <st1:state st="on">Illinois</st1:state></st1:place>.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;">After the 2009 winter shutdown, the LHC was restarted and the beam was ramped up to 3.5 TeV per beam, half its designed energy, which is planned for after its 2012 shutdown. On 30 March 2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV beams, which set a new world record for the highest-energy man-made particle collisions.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">SAFETY MEASURES</span></span></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span>The rock surrounding the LHC is a natural shield that reduces the amount of natural radiation that reaches the LHC and this reduces interference with the detectors. Vice versa, radiation produced when the LHC is running is safely shielded by 50 – 100 metres of rock.</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlQLYvneLV-p4BxWoCOU9CRRspXldnvtKnCjvB2VMaEXLnmyrvgYxiUHK76emrbqco7bQOo1McGQXnlSfrCAatctA3k3ZgmE2I3vJNkWyF_IPaErKi4n72M0E2hKC7cEJhTEjtnIVA4eoq/s320/diagram-of-lhc1%5B1%5D.jpg" /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">TEST TIMELINE</span></span></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;">Date </span></b><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;"> </span></b></span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;">Event</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>10 Sep 2008</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>CERN successfully fired the first protons around the entire tunnel circuit in stages.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span><b>19 Sep 2008</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>Magnetic quench occurred in about 100 bending magnets in sectors 3 and 4, causing a loss of approximately 6 tonnes of liquid helium.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>30 Sep 2008</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>First "modest" high-energy collisions planned but postponed due to accident.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>16 Oct 2008 </b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>CERN released a preliminary analysis of the incident.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>21 Oct 2008 </b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>Official inauguration.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>05 Dec 2008</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>CERN released detailed analysis.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>20 Nov 2009</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>Low-energy beams circulated in the tunnel for the first time since the incident.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>23 Nov 2009</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>First particle collisions in all four detectors at 450 GeV.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>30 Nov 2009 </b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>LHC becomes the world's highest-energy particle accelerator achieving 1.18 TeV per beam, beating the Tevatron's previous record of 0.98 TeV per beam held for eight years.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>28 Feb 2010</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>The LHC continues operations ramping energies to run at 3.5 TeV for 18 months to two years, after which it will be shut down to prepare for the 14 TeV collisions (7 TeV per beam).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align: none;text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b>30 Mar 2010</b><span style="mso-tab-count:1"> </span>The two beams collided at 7 TeV in the LHC at 13:06 CEST, marking the start of the LHC research programme.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><img src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc5dbSkTKbQUB1U9vSm7HUptY5CW8wEd_8m_5DxhQOGPjEZeXe3Hki32r8akb0a-fqU1urrdmE6Pv7XjYDEq_ztlEXKMJz12xHVwyKAH8pZAus-JRciCUots9Tm-P5b1BkS_psZpTAEkOc/s320/clip_image00.JPG" /></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p></span><p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p></span><p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none; text-autospace:none"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p></span><p></p><iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dzClt_rtVjHM_nkMs-yoSLC2jqpNtGqRv9ZVq1EeJZ0D2CAtQqLJPChhg2NH-ylKFxqmulGpC_DBwH3McRGUQ' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: rgb(51, 0, 153); "><b><br /></b></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: rgb(51, 0, 153); "><b>GLOSSARY</b></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;"><br /></span><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;">HADRON: </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" line-height: 19px; font-family:sans-serif;"><b> </b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">Hadron </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" line-height: 19px; font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">is a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_particle" title="Composite particle" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">composite particle</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"> made of </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark" title="Quark" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">quarks</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">held together</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"> by the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_force" title="Strong force" class="mw-redirect" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">strong force</span></span></a> </span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;"><br /></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;">QUARK-GLUON: </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" line-height: 19px; font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">A quark-gluon plasma </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" line-height: 19px; font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"> is a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)" style="text-decoration: none; background-image: none; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">phase</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"> of quantum chromodynamics </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" line-height: 19px; font-family:sans-serif;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;">which exists at extremely high temperature</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#660000;"><br /></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#330099;">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;">lhc.web.cern.ch</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" ;font-size:large;">en.wikipedia.org</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:large;"></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" ;font-size:large;"><a href="http://www.lhc.ac.uk/"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;">www.lhc.ac.uk</span></a></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" ;font-size:large;">Youtube</span></div></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Nijishahttp://www.blogger.com/profile/02702701768751783724noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-81023719622113919072010-07-15T09:49:00.004+05:302010-07-15T10:02:03.623+05:30E6 MODELS AND MORE ABOUT GUT MODELS<strong><em><span style="color:#6633ff;">GUT E6</span></em></strong> group models are more significant complicated but are based on <strong><em><span style="color:#6633ff;">SO(10)</span></em></strong> . But there is a need for studing these models and the reason for comes from<strong><em><span style="color:#6633ff;"> E8 X E8</span></em></strong> <strong><em><span style="color:#6633ff;">heterotic string theroy</span></em></strong>.<br /> The most promising moel or candidate of GUT is SO(10)which does not contain any exotic fermions.<div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>meera.a.mhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14879801054141520525noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-25060414217131905052010-07-14T21:39:00.011+05:302010-07-16T14:30:27.772+05:30Special Theory of Relativity:<div align="center"> <span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY</span></strong><br /></div></span><strong><span style="color:#000000;"></span></strong><div align="right"><br /></div><p align="center"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5493807148778248882" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 291px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 178px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1kSuP-3GM37hog3vdT2uglKEgwn66EI6deCo8NUFXkhuVgmIN3xwtZLRBlJuz7hzRbN7U1kvgMd2QjE4fZURUCPEjzDznHOuMtvfxzBBUXYio3kOgq-X0aq7z9El_Gu0gv0U48HoDHsz5/s320/TheoryRelativity.jpg" border="0" /></p><p><em><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="font-size:180%;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>INTRODUCTION</strong></span> </span></span><br /></em><span style="color:#000000;">Let’s start with the question-what is<strong> relativity</strong>? It is the concept in physics according to which measurements change when considered by observers in various states of motion. The main credit of relativity theory is given to great scientist, Albert Einstein.<br />In the beginning of relativity theory i.e. in classical physics, it was assumed that all observers anywhere in universe would obtain identical measurements of space and time intervals. But, according to relativity theory, this is not so; all measurements depend upon the relative motions of the observer and the object observed. Also the modern theory is an extension of the simpler Galilean or Newtonian concept of relativity, which holds that the laws of mechanics are the same in one system as in another system in uniform motion relative to it.<br /><br /></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2yud4dMsZQR4BskT9zkMj3ACYNgu0fIzZVS5vEJNa4-y5FQiZRKteyWewDm-5PUsefYqmLTKB2LARXxpnBMuO_NqxH6nYSW1bwatKmdQgH1FPyKBOQxJfli4Pf7HpyQ_LJh7jLqsimGfS/s1600/Capture.JPG"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFTXjSO9UoMIWEb3JqGOzHjRcY0CuC5N24167BdSEDmJbgYO_tTHn6-qUjBQomVhYCp161W0r8hyvlELDzGD_3HxiS0KoZUSqcCvkfb3R60nvFmCJ_ezrxDFvA9hQdLkZj4EeCpHBbwPCM/s1600/Capture.JPG"><span style="color:#000000;"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5493801351386115234" style="FLOAT: left; MARGIN: 0px 10px 10px 0px; WIDTH: 348px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 228px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFTXjSO9UoMIWEb3JqGOzHjRcY0CuC5N24167BdSEDmJbgYO_tTHn6-qUjBQomVhYCp161W0r8hyvlELDzGD_3HxiS0KoZUSqcCvkfb3R60nvFmCJ_ezrxDFvA9hQdLkZj4EeCpHBbwPCM/s400/Capture.JPG" border="0" /></span></a><span style="color:#000000;">General relativity was invented by Einstein as a modification of his earlier theory of special relativity, which is the theory of the behaviour of space and time as seen by travellers in uniform relative motion (but which didn't include gravity). Special relativity in turn was developed from the earlier theory of classical mechanics, which is a theory originating in the work of Newton that works well for modeling the behaviour of our everyday world but which fails to match experimental data for fast-moving objects and, especially, light. Between the demise of classical mechanics as a fundamental theory and the rise of special relativity there was a period of confusion during which physicists tried to modify classical mechanics in increasingly desperate ways to make it fit the observed facts.<br /></span><br /><span style="color:#000000;">There are two theories based on relativity, both proposed by ALBERT EINSTEIN. They are:</span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"> </span></p><ul><li><span style="color:#000000;">Special Theory of Relativity (1905)</span></li><li><span style="color:#000000;">General Theory of Relativity (1916)<br /></span><span style="color:#000000;"><strong></strong></span></li></ul><p><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Special Theory of Relativity</strong><br />It is a physical theory of relativity based on the assumption that the speed of light in a vacuum is a constant in all reference frames, irrespective of their relative motion.<br /></span><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>General Theory of Relativity<br /></strong>Einstein expanded the special theory of relativity into a general theory which was developed to deal with gravitation and involves accelerating reference frames. </span></p><ul><li><span style="color:#000000;">Both these theories are major milestone in history of modern physics.<br /></span><span style="color:#000000;"><strong></strong></span></li></ul><p><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Constancy of Velocity<br /></strong>A Part of Einstein’s theory of relativity involves an assumption called the constancy of the speed of light, which states that light has an absolute velocity that is the same for all observers is also important. This assumption leads to unexpected consequences.<br />E.g.: If a man traveling in a car at 60 km h-1 (kilometers per hour) throws a stone ahead of him at 30 km h-1, an observer standing by the roadside will see the stone moving at 90 km h-1. But if the man in the car sends out a beam of light, traveling at a speed c relative to him, the observer by the roadside must also see this beam of light traveling at the same speed c, and not at c + 60 km h-1. In other words, the simple law of addition of velocities must be modified, if Einstein’s theory is accepted.<br />Therefore the speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant, denoted by c, and, according to the theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than it.</span></p><p align="left"><strong>EVOLUTION OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY THEORY<br /></strong>The experiment on light waves(ether theory), first carried out in 1881 by physicists Albert A. Michelson and E.W. Morley in the U.S. , is one of the historically significant experiments in physics and led to the development of Einstein’s theory of relativity. Michelson-Morley attempted to measure the velocity of the earth through the supposed ether as one might measure the speed of a ship through the sea. The null result of this measurement caused great confusion among physicists, who made various unsuccessful attempts to explain the result within the context of classical theory.<br />This result discredited the ether theory and ultimately led to the proposal by Albert Einstein that the speed of light is a constant. Einstein explained the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment by means of the special relativity theory, which he enunciated in 1905. This theory accepts the hypothesis that the laws of nature are the same in different moving systems applies also to the propagation of light, so that the measured speed of light is constant for all observers regardless of the motion of the observer or of the source of the light.<br /><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Investigating the Ether</strong><br /></span>During the 19th century, the English physicist Sir Oliver Lodge (1851–1940) and others suggested that all of space was filled with an invisible and ill-defined (but nevertheless all-pervading) medium known as the ether, which enabled light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation to travel. Even the celebrated British physicist Lord Kelvin believed very firmly in the existence of the ether, for as he stated in 1891: “<em>The luminiferous ether</em>... is the only substance we are confident of in dynamics.” The Earth, like other bodies, was supposed to pass freely through this ether, and the motion of the Earth relative to the ether was believed to create a so-called “<strong>ether wind</strong>.” According to this theory, an observer on the Earth would find that light travels faster when it goes in the same direction as this “wind,” or when it goes across it, than when it goes against it. Newton had also suggested that the luminous (light-emitting) body emits a stream of particles that travel in a straight line through the “ether” (the medium thought, at that time, to occupy all of space). </span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:180%;">THE ETHER THEORY AND PROPOSAL OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY THEORY</span></strong><br /><strong>The Michelson-Morley Experiment (Ether Theory)</strong><br />In 1881, the American physicist Albert Michelson set out to detect the effect of the ether on the speed of light traveling through it. He assumed that light rays traveling parallel to the direction of the wind should travel at a different speed from rays traveling perpendicu<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmoJa3rJ_3l5ggB4HvFtN_0CKucVkU1XJjKAlZFqrYbme9hn87osQXsJNeRBhARUET3_4Tt7T13YmFJV3Q5_QxgF4_topYoaa5rsEYOKGL66z_WmaDdmfaw8MR5u6xVEf-kN1uqbxMO85o/s1600/325px-Michelson_Interferometer.jpg"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494423521336986226" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; WIDTH: 320px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 288px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmoJa3rJ_3l5ggB4HvFtN_0CKucVkU1XJjKAlZFqrYbme9hn87osQXsJNeRBhARUET3_4Tt7T13YmFJV3Q5_QxgF4_topYoaa5rsEYOKGL66z_WmaDdmfaw8MR5u6xVEf-kN1uqbxMO85o/s320/325px-Michelson_Interferometer.jpg" border="0" /></a>lar (at right angles) to the wind, and set out to measure this effect with an interferometer. If one arm of the interferometer was set parallel to the wind, and the other perpendicular to it, this instrument would produce interference fringes in two light beams due to the effect of the ether wind. In fact, Michelson found no effect of the ether at all. When he improved and repeated his experiment in 1887 with the American chemist Edward Morley (1838–1923), he still found no effect of the ether, and concluded that the speed of light could not be affected by the motion of the Earth.</span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><em>Caption</em>:<em>A Michelson interferometer for use on an optical table</em></span><br /><br /></p><p align="left"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;color:#000000;">The experiment:</span></strong><br /><span style="color:#000000;">A beam of light from the source A is split on a half silvered glass plate P into two beams, 1 and </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvPoDwHe_e5IohIytjUYI_RlV7XonskI8093-5FQqtNVT7wAjq20bAZiTlQMh3AmQUhqGnhwaLN4hGiUb42eHfy5irFF_sFWuKNImErPfVJzf9qZ5HE5g2tLJTD05kO6VTujjfZq8BLSCE/s1600/Capture1.jpg"><span style="color:#000000;"><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5493801869052989634" style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN: 0px 0px 10px 10px; WIDTH: 362px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 289px" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvPoDwHe_e5IohIytjUYI_RlV7XonskI8093-5FQqtNVT7wAjq20bAZiTlQMh3AmQUhqGnhwaLN4hGiUb42eHfy5irFF_sFWuKNImErPfVJzf9qZ5HE5g2tLJTD05kO6VTujjfZq8BLSCE/s400/Capture1.jpg" border="0" /></span></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglUVygin3M0o35X9QSCbpRgQ6MNDjJud-nz6zHf1TGoSitLLR-YJSGy_ZX1Hq2WZO2id34vm0qxNWF1N3HxnqHSi0Ugc5qJf_XkgHhuDELccW1Ly8BjaOBbaad_L3V9OA5v2x2t_sMh7OB/s1600/Capture1.jpg"></a><span style="color:#000000;">2 ,travelling along and perpendicular to the direction of the Earth’s orbit. The velocity of the Earth’s orbital motion is indicated by the arrow and the letter V. Beams 1 and 2 reflect from mirrors S1 and S2, respectively and return to P. After reflecting, the two beams travel in direction 3. That is the direction in which the interference pattern was observed<br />The decisive element of this experiment consists in turning the apparatus through 90◦ ; beam 1 now travels in the direction of Earth while beam2 travels normal to that direction. If propagation through the stationary ether the difference in the paths of beams 1 and 2 would change and the interference pattern observed in direction 3 would also change. But however, no change was observed.<br /><br />NOTE: The apparatus used is called a Michelson’s interferometer. </span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">OBSERVATION</span></strong>- To their surprise, the beams of light completed the course in the same time. Michelson and Morley had not only failed to measure the speed of the earth through the ether, but they failed to even detect the presence of the ether. This experiment was repeated several times and the same results were found.<br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">RESULT</span></strong>-Therefore, their experiments showed that the velocity of light is exactly the same in every direction and thus does not depend on the proper motion of Earth. Hence, experiments seemed to say that the earth was not moving relative to the<br />ether, which was manifestly wrong since the earth was moving in a circular path around<br />the sun, so at some stage it had to be moving relative to the ether.<br /></span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Explaining the Michelson-Morley Experiment</span></strong><br />Many attempts were made to patch things up while still retaining the same Newtonian ideas of space and time. Amongst other things, to explain this surprising result, the Dutch physicist G.A. Lorentz and the Irish physicist George Francis Fitzgerald suggested – independently of each other – that a body moving through the ether must contract along the direction of its motion. It was suggested that the earth dragged the ether in its immediate vicinity along with it. It was also proposed that objects contracted in length along the direction parallel to the direction of motion of the object relative to the ether. In effect, they believed that the arm of Michelson’s interferometer parallel to the ether wind had shrunk by an amount that exactly compensated for the motion through the ether wind. This suggestion, due to Fitzgerald and elaborated on by Lorentz and hence known as the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction(the shrinking phenomenon), ‘explained’ the negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment, but failed in part because no physical mechanism could be discerned that would be responsible for the contraction. The Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction was to resurface with a new interpretation following from the work of Einstein. Thus some momentary successes were achieved, but eventually all these attempts were found to be unsatisfactory in various ways. It was Einstein who pointed the way out of the impasse, away out that required a massive revision of our concepts of space, and more particularly, of time.<br />In 1905, Albert Einstein rejected the idea of all-pervading ether relative to which bodies were at rest or in motion. To replace this idea, he formed the special theory of relativity. Einstein explained this concept in his famous scientific paper , “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” .<br />Einstein based the entire theory on two principles. These two principles explained the negative result of the Michelson-Morley experiment, since any observer will find that the speed of light has the same value c in all directions: therefore, there is no such thing as an “ether wind.”<br /><br /><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong>SPECIAL THOERY OF RELATIVITY</strong><br /></span></span><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Einstein’s Postulates<br /></span></strong>The difficulty that had to be resolved amounted to choosing amongst three alternatives:<br />1. The Galilean transformation was correct and something was wrong with Maxwell’s equations.<br />2. The Galilean transformation applied to Newtonian mechanics only.<br />3. The Galilean transformation, and the Newtonian principle of relativity based on this transformation were wrong and that there existed a new relativity principle valid for both mechanics and electromagnetism that was not based on the Galilean transformation.<br /><br />The first possibility was thrown out as Maxwell’s equations proved to be totally successful in application. The second was unacceptable as it seemed something as fundamental as the transformation between inertial frames could not be restricted to but one set of natural phenomena i.e. it seemed preferable to believe that physics was a unified subject. The third was all that was left, so Einstein set about trying to uncover a new principle of relativity. His investigations led him to make two postulates: </span></p><ol><li><div align="left"><span style="color:#000000;">All physical laws are the same in every inertial frame of reference regardless of their velocities relative to each other. Inertial frames of reference are either at rest or moving at a constant speed in a straight line.<br />In other words, it means the laws of nature appear the same to all unaccelerated observers.</span></div></li><li><span style="color:#000000;">Speed of light is same for all observers regardless of their motion or the motion of light source.<br />Therefore, to all unaccelerated observers, the speed of light in free space appears to have the same value,i.e., c equal to 3 × 108 m s-1.</span></li></ol><p><span style="color:#000000;">Einstein was inspired to make these through his study of the properties of Maxwell’s equations and not by the negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment, of which he was apparently only vaguely aware. It is this postulate that forces us to reconsider what we understand by space and time.</span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><span style="color:#000000;">NOTE: Einstein's theory is called the "special" theory of relativity because it applies the principle of relativity only to systems in uniform motion relative to each other.</span><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><br /></span><span style="font-size:180%;"><strong><span style="color:#000000;">EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SPECIAL RELATIVITY THEORY</span></strong><br /></span><span style="color:#000000;">When Albert Einstein first proposed the special theory of relativity, it was exactly that – a theory. There are now various pieces of experimental evidence that support Einstein’s original ideas.<br /></span><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Muon Decay</span><br /></strong>Muons are tiny particles that are sometimes created and exist briefly inside atoms. Muons decay into electrons and neutrinos and normally have a very short half-life of only 2 millionths of a second. However, in 1976, researchers at CERN (European Council for Nuclear Research) used a particle accelerator to create a beam of muons traveling at 99.94 percent of the speed of light. Traveling at this speed, their half-life was extended by some 30 times. The special theory predicts this result very accurately, so muon decay provides evidence that the special theory of relativity is correct.</span> </p><p><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Cosmic Rays</span><br /></strong>The special theory, which states that at very high speeds time slows down relative to an observer, can also explain why cosmic rays (subatomic particles from space) can survive long enough to reach the Earth. They are traveling at speeds near that of light, and so they last long enough to complete their amazingly long journeys.</span> </p><p><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Electrons in Cathode Ray Tubes</span><br /></strong>The special theory of relativity also states that mass increases at very high speeds. Another subatomic particle, the electron, travels at about 9 × 107 m s-1 (about 30 percent of the speed of light) when it is accelerated in a cathode ray tube, such as the one used in a television. At these speeds, electrons are found to increase in mass by a factor of about 900.</span> </p><p><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><span style="font-size:130%;">Flying Clocks</span><br /></strong>An experiment conducted in 1971 provided an impressive confirmation of the twin-paradox (one of the important consequences of the special theory) by flying some very accurate atomic clocks around the world on a jet airliner. Some of the clocks gained minute amounts of time, and some lost time, exactly as predicted by the special theory of relativity.</span> </p><p><br /><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="font-size:130%;"><strong>Nuclear Reactions</strong><br /></span>In the process known as radioactive decay, the nucleus of an atom disintegrates into smaller components and energy is released. It turns out that the mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of its components; the missing mass, or mass defect, is accounted for by the energy that is needed to hold the nucleus together, known as the binding energy. It turns out that the binding energy can be related to the mass defect using Einstein’s mass–energy equation, E = mc2. This is further support for the special theory.</span><br /><strong><span style="color:#000000;"></span></strong><br /><strong><span style="font-size:130%;color:#000000;">APPLICATIONS of Special Relativity</span></strong><br /><span style="color:#000000;">The application of special relativity is important in Global Positioning System (GPS) - although this really requires the full theory of general relativity. The satellites orbiting earth have clocks that tick at a different speed then those on Earth because of their differing velocities. The technology needs to have clocks in perfect synch with those on Earth to allow it to nail down position to a precise degree. The slight difference between them would cause errors of several parts per billion.<br />This would be enough to make them useless for all modern purposes including aerial and submersible navigation and military operations.<br />More applications are, VLBI, high-voltage X-ray and TV tubes (Cathode ray tubes), and medical accelerators.</span></p><p><span style="color:#000000;"> </span><br />Hereby I conclude with a quote by Einstein,</p><p><em>Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler. </em></p><p><br />References:<br />Special Theory of Relativity by V.A.Ugarov<br />Wikipedia<br />physical reality </p><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Subasaraswathi.Rhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06975051317312834253noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-62744767854304831352010-07-14T21:20:00.004+05:302010-07-14T22:14:59.275+05:30STRING THEORY<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm7LOmSlaPph3bKJOiO3ceWbFziuneorq6bUhCNiWWnpMFiu-B0Gyv0z2O5N7atsBck-_FJAqCsnTXs95hH54O9uTNL4jOtqKILIaYYGNVEtiT_qWvK7F5W6FQbYnXHdSFwbUrEsKOvMg/s1600/string_theory%5B3%5D.png"><img style="float: left; margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 309px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm7LOmSlaPph3bKJOiO3ceWbFziuneorq6bUhCNiWWnpMFiu-B0Gyv0z2O5N7atsBck-_FJAqCsnTXs95hH54O9uTNL4jOtqKILIaYYGNVEtiT_qWvK7F5W6FQbYnXHdSFwbUrEsKOvMg/s320/string_theory%5B3%5D.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5493797725416522146" border="0" /></a><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIwPxi64FL-finaUaqRwODe68rV5EyvICwsPdUhbKYeQBe-0UJc6Md-R7vDGrf1pNds9EwQxIXSBts1ccQMS_EFrxY2tIekNncXGVlYwc7ZuzA8mi3erJVTuIiomS_iZI4-i4DIFNIhqs/s1600/normal_super-string_theory1600.jpg"><img style="float: left; margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 240px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIwPxi64FL-finaUaqRwODe68rV5EyvICwsPdUhbKYeQBe-0UJc6Md-R7vDGrf1pNds9EwQxIXSBts1ccQMS_EFrxY2tIekNncXGVlYwc7ZuzA8mi3erJVTuIiomS_iZI4-i4DIFNIhqs/s320/normal_super-string_theory1600.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5493797139589349186" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:trebuchet ms;" >STRING THEORY</span><br /><br />What is the basic need of string theory?<br /><br /><div style="text-align: justify;">Physicists all around the world have been searching from the mid twentieth century for a theory which unifies all the four fundamental forces in nature -the strong nuclear force,the weak nuclear force,the electromagnetic force and the gravitational force.They were somewhat successful in unifying these theories giving equations and hypothesizing that, if we go back in time when the universe originated we could see that the nuclear the strong and the weak and the electromagnetic force can all be bonded into one.This was further proved by quantum mechanics in proper particle terms. But the main force was missing, the force experienced most, in our lives- GRAVITY.<br /><br />So the string theory came into existence again as an attempt to unify the forces after being dead for a long time.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">what is string theory??</span><br />It states that if we go into electrons and quarks in an atom,there are smaller objects ( about 1 billion times smaller than the atoms!) which are string like and can vibrate giving the particles the mass,spin etc.<br />It is what is said to give the binding power between the electrons and the protons in an atom.these strings are mass less!!! and are associated with gravity! and were called gravitons.String theory predicts that this gravitons are the cause of gravity,and it is this what makes up the building block of everything.The theory also states extra dimensions i.e more than what we know which are three dimensions of space and one of time..<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span><br />In 1965 <span style="font-weight: bold;">Gabriel Veneziano</span> discovered a 200 year old equation,which shows the strong force between atoms originally discovered by a Swiss mathematician-<span style="font-weight: bold;">Oeler</span>,he quickly became popular for that discovery afterwards...<br />As time passed Oelers equation was passed into an American physicist <span style="font-weight: bold;">Lenard Cuskin</span> who<br />stated that Oelers formula exactly agreed with a particle which was like a string and could vibrate.But Cuskins theory was not accepted by the scientific world so it appeared string theory was dead.<br />Scientists then made a strange theory that all forces can be explained in terms of particles for eg: more the particle like photon is exchanged between the atoms more the force.<br />And they were somewhat successful stating that if we go back to the time just after the big bang all the three forces the strong and weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force could be one grand force.But where was gravity?<br />In 1973 <span style="font-weight: bold;">John Schwartz</span> stated the equations were displaying gravity and that gravitons a small particle about a billion times smaller than the atoms which were mass less was giving gravity to objects. <span style="font-weight: bold;">Mass less</span> and gravity!!!But then again there was no response..<br /><br />So he was joined by Michael Greene in his venture,the task was incredibly tough since it had a lot of mathematical anomalies the whole world was looked in terms of strings that vibrate!!!but after years of work they were able to solve the anomalies and when they calculated these equations,they ended up with the same result on both the sides.<br /><br />1,2,3,4,5,6 how many??<br />String theorists predict that there are not just the three dimensions of space and one of time,but there are extra 6 dimensions of space which are so billion times smaller than the atoms that look like curved objects!!! but again after this theory <span style="font-weight: bold;">Witten</span> a world famous physicist considered even as the predecessor to Einstein proposed one more dimension making the dimensions to a mindblowing 11 !!<br />There were actually five string theories produced at first,but <span style="font-weight: bold;">Witten</span> concluded in 1995 that these are five different ways of looking at the same theory. The string theory was concluded into one and was called the <span style="font-weight: bold;">M theory</span>..<br />and nobody really knows what the M stands for,so mystical just like the whole theory itself..<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">REFERENCES</span>:<br />www.youtube.com<br /><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">NOTE</span>: This assignment has been done by a person(me) who knows very little about string theory.So mistakes might have have crept in.I regret any mistake.<br />by:<br />Vysakhan.H<br /></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-13252069305255962862010-07-14T17:58:00.001+05:302010-08-01T11:02:22.173+05:3000010 (1) ATHIRA<div style="background-color: #f9dfd1; width: 650px; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; color: #000; padding: 5px;"><div style="height: 36px; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 4px;"><table style="display: inline;width: 100%;"><tbody><tr><td width="32px" style="padding: 0;"><img src="https://docs.google.com/images/doclist/icon_6_pres_large.gif" style="height: 32px; margin-right: 5px;" alt=""></td> <td valign="middle" height="32px" style="padding: 0;">I've shared <a href='http://docs.google.com/present/edit?id=0AYcm-XmKokxbZGQzc3I2ZzNfMzBmd2RkOHd2ZA&hl=en&invite=CMSClOQM'>00010 (1) ATHIRA</a></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div style="font-size: 13px; background-color: #FFF; padding: 10px 7px 7px 7px;"><span style="color: #007825; font-weight: bold;">Message from <a href="mailto:athira.athira466@gmail.com" style="color: #007825; font-weight: bold;text-decoration: none;">athira.athira466@gmail.com</a>:</span> <span style="color: #000;"><pre style="font-size: 13px;font-family: Arial, sans-serif"></pre></span> Click to open: <ul style="list-style-type: none; padding: 0; margin: 0;"><li style="margin: 0;"><a href="http://docs.google.com/present/edit?id=0AYcm-XmKokxbZGQzc3I2ZzNfMzBmd2RkOHd2ZA&hl=en&invite=CMSClOQM">00010 (1) ATHIRA</a></li></ul> <br> <span style="color: #898989;">Google Docs makes it easy to create, store and share online documents, spreadsheets and presentations.</span> <div style="text-align: right;"><a href="http://docs.google.com"><img style="border: 0;margin-top: 10px;" src="https://docs.google.com/images/doclist/docs_logo_sm.gif" alt="Google Docs logo"></a></div></div></div><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2164868516363269351.post-43798199345323106512010-07-14T17:35:00.010+05:302010-07-17T10:26:06.905+05:30GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY <strong>INTRODUCTION</strong><img id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5494126096011606770" style="DISPLAY: block; MARGIN: 0px auto 10px; WIDTH: 400px; CURSOR: hand; HEIGHT: 200px; TEXT-ALIGN: center" alt="" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlxnROuvqfkYfBQTvfG-OM9-cSlfQ2SnFRICG4D7tT7pcn9Iv1Icjeym8RlSPNWu2XiKuXY6w4RAMqlQ1kmMpiTLbfuRmEbrqzm7YfJRJEWMqmNd7zs6ofDhLdZimCVp0jVzPi6vaWi1fn/s400/einstein_hammer.gif" border="0" />
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<br /><div><em><strong>Relativity theory</strong></em> was first studied by <em><strong>Albert Einstein</strong></em>. The general theory of relativity was published in 1915. It is the current description of gravitation in modern physics. It unifies special theory of relativity and <em><strong>Newton’s law of gravitation</strong></em>. It describes gravity as a geometrical property of space and time or space - time. The speed of light in a vacuum is constant and an absolute physical boundary for motion. This does not have much effect on person’s day to day life since we travel much lower speed than light. For objects traveling near light speed, however, the theory of relativity states that objects will move slower and shorten in length from the point of view of an observer on Earth. Einstein also derived the famous equation, <strong><em>E = mc2</em></strong>, which reveals the equivalence of mass and energy.
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<br /><strong>THEORY OF RELATIVITY</strong>
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<br />Theory of relativity is of two types. <em><strong>Special Theory of Relativity</strong></em> and <em><strong>General Theory of Relativity</strong></em>.
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<br /><span style="font-family:arial;"><strong>Special Theory of Relativity
<br /></strong></span>The first is the Special Theory of Relativity, which essentially deals with the question of whether rest and motion are relative or absolute, and with the consequences of Einstein’s conjecture that they are relative.
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<br /><strong>General Theory of Relativity</strong>
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<br /></strong>The second is the General Theory of Relativity, which primarily applies to particles as they accelerate, particularly due to gravitation, and acts as a radical revision of Newton’s theory, predicting important new results for fast-moving and/or very massive bodies. The General Theory of Relativity correctly reproduces all validated predictions of Newton’s theory, but expands on our understanding of some of the key principles. Newtonian physics had previously hypothesized that gravity operated through empty space, but the theory lacked explanatory power as far as how the distance and mass of a given object could be transmitted through space. General relativity irons out this paradox, for it shows that objects continue to move in a straight line in space-time, but we observe the motion as acceleration because of the curved nature of <strong><em>space-time.</em></strong>
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<br />The development of general relativity began with the <strong><em>equivalence principle</em></strong>, under which the state of <em><strong>accelerated motion</strong></em> and being at rest in a gravitational field are physically identical. The upshot of this is that free fall is inertial motion; an object in free fall is falling because that is how objects move when there is no force being exerted on them, instead of this being due to the force of gravity as in the case in classical mechanics. This is incompatible with <strong><em>classical mechanics</em></strong> and <strong><em>special relativity</em></strong> because in those theories inertially moving objects can not accelerate with respect to each other, but objects in free fall do so. To resolve this difficulty Einstein first propose that space – time is curved. Some of the consequences of general relativity are:
<br />i) Time goes slower in higher gravitational fields. This is called <em><strong>gravitational time dilation</strong></em>.
<br />ii) Orbits precess in a way unexpected in Newton’s theory of gravity.
<br />iii) Rays of <em><strong>light bend</strong></em> <em><strong>in the presence of a gravitational field</strong></em>.
<br />iv) <strong><em>Frame – dragging</em></strong> in which, a rotating mass “ drags along” the space time around it.
<br />v) <strong><em>The Universe is expanding</em></strong>, and the far parts of it are moving away from us <em><strong>faster than the speed of light</strong></em>.
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<br /><div><strong>Dragging Space and Time</strong>
<br />The results of two studies announced in early November 1997 provide unprecedented support for “frame-dragging,” a concept predicted by physicist Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. Frame-dragging describes how massive objects actually distort space and time around themselves as they rotate. One of the studies examined frame-dragging around black holes, an example of which is shown here in an artist's conception. </div>
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<br /><div><strong>General Relativity:</strong>
<br />The second part of relativity is the theory of general relativity and lies on two empirical findings that he elevated to the status of basic postulates. The first postulate is the relativity principle: local physics is governed by the theory of special relativity. The second postulate is the equivalence principle: there is no way for an observer to distinguish locally between gravity and acceleration.
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<br /><div>Einstein discovered that there is a relationship between mass, gravity and space-time. Mass distorts space-time, causing it to curve.
<br />Gravity can be described as motion caused in curved space time.</div>
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<br /><div>Thus, the primary result from general relativity is that gravitation is a purely geometric consequence of the properties of space-time. Special relativity destroyed classical physics view of absolute space and time, general relativity dismantles the idea that space-time is described by Euclidean or plane geometry. In this sense, general relativity is a field theory, relating Newton's law of gravity to the field nature of space-time, which can be curved. </div>
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<br /><div>Gravity in general relativity is described in terms of curved space-time. The idea that space-time is distorted by motion, as in special relativity, is extended to gravity by the equivalence principle. Gravity comes from matter, so the presence of matter causes distortions or warps in space-time. Matter tells space-time how to curve, and space-time tells matter how to move (orbits). Gravity in general relativity is described in terms of curved space-time. The idea that space-time is distorted
<br />There were two classical test of general relativity; the first was that light should be deflected by passing close to a massive body. The first opportunity occurred during a total eclipse of the Sun in 1919. </div>
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<br /><div>Measurements of stellar positions near the darkened solar limb proved Einstein was right. Direct confirmation of gravitational lensing was obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope last year.
<br />The second test is that general relativity predicts a time dilation in a gravitational field, so that, relative to someone outside of the field, clocks (or atomic processes) go slowly. This was confirmed with atomic clocks flying airplanes in the mid-1970. </div>
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<br /><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhlvdrxA0_nnmcPnq0z6Zc2bQU2c2aSLnXqTmAKmHri__06zzeOQfzRDhtAW0bXdN0Mt07kGc1bAPKEEAjcBJ7m5dcwg4kcAu6H2ADiHwAuPhEx9f2rLL-0lL7W83pvaDWWCySobovUxjd/s1600/bend.gif"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhlvdrxA0_nnmcPnq0z6Zc2bQU2c2aSLnXqTmAKmHri__06zzeOQfzRDhtAW0bXdN0Mt07kGc1bAPKEEAjcBJ7m5dcwg4kcAu6H2ADiHwAuPhEx9f2rLL-0lL7W83pvaDWWCySobovUxjd/s1600/bend.gif"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhlvdrxA0_nnmcPnq0z6Zc2bQU2c2aSLnXqTmAKmHri__06zzeOQfzRDhtAW0bXdN0Mt07kGc1bAPKEEAjcBJ7m5dcwg4kcAu6H2ADiHwAuPhEx9f2rLL-0lL7W83pvaDWWCySobovUxjd/s1600/bend.gif"></a>
<br />The general theory of relativity is constructed so that its results are approximately the same as those of Newton's theories as long as the velocities of all bodies interacting with each other gravitationally are small compared with the speed of light--i.e., as long as the gravitational fields involved are weak. The latter requirement may be stated roughly in terms of the escape velocity. A gravitational field is considered strong if the escape velocity approaches the speed of light, weak if it is much smaller. All gravitational fields encountered in the solar system are weak in this sense.
<br />Notice that at low speeds and weak gravitational fields, general and special relativity reduce to Newtonian physics, i.e. everyday experience.</div>
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<br /><div class="blogger-post-footer"><b><i>Also Visit <a href="http://plustwophysics.com">Plus Two Physics</a> for Free help in Physics</i></b></div>Abhirami rajeevhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00236618622530894929noreply@blogger.com0